Abstract
 Establishment of nature reserves (NRs) is a common method to avoid biodiversity loss and degradation of ecosystem services (ESs). The evaluation of the ESs in NRs and the exploration of associated influencing factors are the basis to improving the ESs and management. However, the ESs effectiveness of NRs over time remains questionable, namely due to the heterogeneity of landscape characteristics inside and outside the NRs. This study (i) quantifies the role of 75 NRs in China to maintaining ESs (i.e., net primary production (NPP), soil conservation, sandstorm prevention and water yield) from 2000 to 2020; and (ii) reveals the trade-offs/synergies; (iii) identifies the main influencing factors of ESs effectiveness of NRs. Results show that more than 80% of NRs had positive ESs effectiveness, and higher ESs effectiveness in older rather than recent NRs. For different ESs, effectiveness over time increases for NPP (E_NPP) and soil conservation (E_SC), but decreases for sandstorm prevention (E_SP) and water yield (E_WY). There is a clear synergy relationship between E_NPP and E_SC. Moreover, the ESs effectiveness are closely correlated with elevation, precipitation, and perimeter area ratio. Our findings can provide valuable information for supporting management, improvement of ESs effectiveness and site selection planning of NRs.
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