The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Enhancing Critical Thinking in Education : A Systematic Literature Review

This research employs a qualitative approach to explore integrative learning strategies aimed at enhancing critical thinking skills in Islamic Religious Education at the secondary school level in Padang, Indonesia. The study involved four teachers and 120 students from various classes to provide a comprehensive perspective. Given the increasing importance of critical thinking in education, especially in subjects that shape students' moral and ethical foundations, this research emphasizes the crucial role of developing these skills within Islamic Religious Education. Data were collected through direct classroom observations, in-depth interviews with teachers and students to capture their experiences and insights on the strategies used, and a detailed analysis of relevant teaching materials. The findings reveal that group discussions create a dynamic environment where students can exchange ideas, broaden perspectives, and develop critical arguments. Case study analyses enable students to connect religious concepts to real-life situations, reinforcing the practical significance of religious teachings. Problem-solving activities promote logical, systematic, and reflective thinking skills, especially when addressing complex moral and ethical dilemmas. The study also highlights that these strategies not only enhance students' critical thinking but also increase their active engagement in learning, deepen their understanding of religious teachings, and foster a reflective approach toward moral values. This research offers an in-depth understanding of the effectiveness of integrative learning strategies in Islamic Religious Education and underscores their relevance in preparing students to meet the demands of modern education, which prioritizes critical thinking skills.

In this paper we propose an approach to organizing Adaptive Problem-Based Learning (PBL) leading to the development of Higher-Order Thinking (HOT) skills and collaborative skills in students. Adaptability of PBL is expressed by changes in fixed instructor assessments caused by the dynamics of developing HOT skills needed for problem solving, flexible choice of control tests and problems for students, and adaptive formation of HOT skills within heterogeneous collaborative groups. It induces the students to develop HOT skills and collaborative skills through a combination of personalized and collaborative PBL. Adaptability of PBL is realized by taking into account values of the proposed coefficient of HOT skills development. The two-stage process of adaptive PBL allows guided development of HOT skills in students during study of a subject. Attention in the first stage is devoted to development of analytical HOT skills in students through personalized PBL. The main attention on the second stage is devoted to the development of creative HOT skills and collaborative skills in students through collaborative PBL. The proposed approach provides effective development of HOT skills and collaborative skills in students owing to: availability of a two-stage adaptive PBL process, complex and adaptive assessment of HOT skills, dynamic choice of control tests and problems for students, adaptive formation of HOT skills heterogeneous collaborative groups, and management of HOT skills development of students.

K-12 students' higher-order thinking skills: Conceptualization, components, and evaluation indicators

One key competency in teaching profession is the ability to think at a higher level. Therefore, it is important to understand how to develop and refine effective training approaches for novice teachers. This study examined the novice teachers' higher-order thinking skills development through online problem-based learning platform and analyzed the level of novice teachers' higher-order thinking skills. The research involved 57 novice teachers participating in the research for learning development courses. The mixed method experimental design was employed in this study. Data were collected by using multiple choice tests and self-report reflective thinking forms. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze novice teachers' HOTS. The t-test was conducted to evaluate mean differences among the novice teachers' HOTS. Content analysis was used to code and categorize themes and pattern of HOTS perception. Results revealed that novice teachers have shown improvement in higher-order thinking skills include the problem solving, critical thinking, creative thinking sub-skills through online problem-based learning approach. Their proficiency in HOTS significantly increased, t(57) = 17.72, p < .001, with a high portion achieving advanced levels. Furthermore, they gained the positive perspective in employing online PBL for HOTS development.

An Analysis of Engaged Thought through the Lens of Undergraduate ResearchThe development of engaged thought (a term that encompasses critical and reflective thinking) isgenerally agreed to be an important goal for the education of future engineers. Engaged thoughtnaturally develops over time and through experience, but debates still exist regarding how wellthese skills can be developed or generalized, and if so, how to best nurture these skills. Manyscholars have previously asserted the plethora of benefits associated with student participation inundergraduate research, including cognitive, personal, and professional development. As thevery nature of the research process as a whole mirrors what many individuals describe as theirperceptions of critical thinking, the undergraduate research experience lends itself particularlywell as a lens through which to analyze perceptions and development of engaged thought forengineering students.This study presents a multi-student case study that explores the way nine undergraduate studentsparticipating in a 10-week Materials Science and Engineering Research Experience forUndergraduates program view the research process with respect to their use and development ofthe elements of engaged thought as well as their understanding of how and why engaged thoughtis used in engineering. Each student participated in a series of four interviews throughout thecourse of their research program and discussed their research, their beliefs about criticalthinking, and their perceptions of its use. These perceptions were viewed through the context ofthe project on which each student was working. Additional information was obtained throughsurveys with the faculty and graduate student mentors assigned to each student. These surveysasked for the mentors’ perceptions of critical thinking as well as their general approaches towardmentorship and their assessment of their student’s development.Each student’s case establishes a vignette to illustrate their own personal experience throughoutthe research process and these cases individually stand as representative cases for theexperiences of an average undergraduate student conducting research. However, a cross-caseanalysis will provide insight regarding trends amongst these perceptions and potential impactsthat various factors such as mentorship style or mentor attitudes and perceptions may have onthose of their students. While significant evidence already indicates that participation inundergraduate research programs provides a boost in cognitive abilities and provides afoundation for future success, the case study approach used will help to illuminate which factorshelp contribute more strongly to the development of engaged thought, and consequently, how tobest support that cognitive growth.

The swift progress of Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI), especially large language models like ChatGPT, has transformed the educational landscape by presenting novel opportunities for enhancing critical thinking and higher-order cognitive skills. However, despite growing interest, there remains limited systematic evidence on how scholarship has conceptualized and investigated the intersection of GenAI, as well as critical thinking in education, creating a gap in understanding both the scope and direction of this emerging field. This study aims to map and synthesize existing research through a bibliometric analysis to identify patterns, trends, and thematic clusters. Data were gathered from the Scopus database employing advanced search strategies with the keywords “generative” and “critical thinking,” restricted to English-language publications, and published between 2020 and 2025. The initial search yielded 645 publications that were further processed and refined using OpenRefine to ensure consistency and eliminate redundancies. Statistical trends, including annual publication output, country and institutional contributions, and leading sources, were examined using the Scopus Analyser, while intellectual structures and thematic networks were visualized through VOSviewer. The analysis revealed significant growth in publications since 2020, with strong contributions from the fields of computational linguistics, Artificial Intelligence (AI), and education. Co-occurrence keyword mapping highlighted seven clusters, with “language models,” “reasoning ability,” and “critical thinking” emerging as core research themes. These findings underscore the centrality of GenAI in advancing reasoning and pedagogical applications, while also identifying emerging subfields such as chain-of-thought reasoning, prompt engineering, and higher-order thinking skills. By providing a comprehensive overview of publication trends, thematic networks, and intellectual structures, this study contributes to the body of knowledge by clarifying the current state of research and pointing to future directions for exploring how generative AI can effectively support critical thinking in educational contexts.

In line with 21st-Century learning, the 2013 Curriculum highlights the development of critical thinking, problem analysis, problem-solving, decision making, and creating something new. Professional teachers need to facilitate students in developing these abilities. This research describes how the teachers plan the higher-order thinking skills (HOTs). This research is qualitative research with a descriptive design. The respondents were four teachers with 0-40 years of teaching experience. The data were collected qualitatively through documentation and interviews. The results showed that HOTs were not clearly expressed in the teacher's lesson plans at teaching experience levels of 0 to 10 years and 10 years to 20 years. Teachers with 20 to 30 years of teaching experience and 30 to 40 years of experience have expressed HOTs explicitly and completely in all parts of the lesson plan. Teachers have an important role in facilitating higher-order thinking skills that can be seen through the lesson plans. The lesson plan must describe the development of higher-order thinking skills holistically. Teachers need to review each lesson plan to be coherent in every part and relevant to 21st-century learning.

The development of e-schoolbag offers a valuable platform to the development of pupils' higher-order thinking skills. There are certain functions of e-schoolbags such as virtual simulation, cognitive tools, instant feedback, and learning portfolio, which can be used to cultivate the higher-order thinking skills of learners. This study describes a teaching practice with the use e-schoolbag in which the development of the higher-order thinking skills was studied by a quasi-experimental research. The data showed that such teaching practice with the application of the e-schoolbag could promote significantly the higher-order thinking skills of primary school students, especially the analytical skill and the evaluation skill.

Higher-order thinking skills, such as critical and reflective thinking, are essential for Higher Education graduates’ employability. Particularly for the teaching profession, reflective thinking has been highlighted by theorists, such as Schön, as a necessary skill for regulating various aspects of the profession. The literature demonstrates that critical and reflective thinking, both higher-order thinking skills, share common ground. Still, instruction is required in order for students to develop them after attending studies in Higher Education. In addition, the transformation of Higher Education curricula to promote higher-order thinking skills might be a demanding task. Following theoretical presuppositions regarding instruction for critical thinking and blended learning, two Critical Thinking Blended Apprenticeships Curricula for Teacher Education were designed. The study aimed to examine whether the curricula could promote reflective thinking. Seventy-one undergraduate student-teachers participated in the study, which followed a pretest-posttest design. Paired sample t-tests revealed minor differences in student-teachers’ reflective thinking, which were nevertheless insignificant. However, when the two curricula were examined separately, a significant increase in student-teachers’ dimensions of reflective thinking was revealed. Results are discussed in light of the super complexity of learning and teaching in Higher Education.KeywordsCritical and reflective thinkingHigher educationCurricula

<span lang="EN-US">The concept of higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) has become an important issue in 21<sup>st</sup>-century learning. One of the skills reflecting higher-order thinking skills is critical thinking that also becomes another important concept that has recently been studied in some researches. The number of previous studies supporting the influence of debate as a beneficial pedagogy on the development of critical thinking skills have been conducted through some researches. However, the studies contradicting the issue also need to be concerned to consider the influence of debate particularly in enhancing critical thinking in English language class. Having conducted a study by using a quantitative method and objective assessment, the purpose of the present study was to find significant effect of debate on the development of students’ higher-order thinking skills in English language class. The study was conducted in public senior high school 1 in Bogor, West Java, Indonesia, involving 68 students divided into two groups. The result shows that there was no significant mean difference of the scores obtained, despite the higher scores achieved by the experimental group in which the group using debate, since the t<sub>h</sub> is lower than the t<sub>t</sub>(1.21 < 1.669). In other words, the study reveals that debate does not have significant effect on the development of higher-order thinking skills. Some possible reasons are then discussed and illustrated.</span>

Critical thinking and other higher-order thinking skills are key objectives of higher education. Through the development of higher-order thinking skills, students are able to discern information from multiple, often competing sources, make sound judgements, draw conclusions, and enact creative solutions to complex problems. However, faculty can struggle with how to help students develop higher-order thinking skills, relying instead on transmission of knowledge, focusing on what to learn instead of how to learn. In this chapter, the author provides insights into the connections between using gamification as a pedagogical approach, and the development of higher-order thinking skills. The chapter addresses perspectives on higher-ordering thinking, approaches to gamification in college courses, and concludes with recommendations for faculty in approaching gamification.

Critical thinking and other higher-order thinking skills are key objectives of higher education. Through the development of higher-order thinking skills, students are able to discern information from multiple, often competing sources, make sound judgements, draw conclusions, and enact creative solutions to complex problems. However, faculty can struggle with how to help students develop higher-order thinking skills, relying instead on transmission of knowledge, focusing on what to learn instead of how to learn. In this chapter, the author provides insights into the connections between using gamification as a pedagogical approach, and the development of higher-order thinking skills. The chapter addresses perspectives on higher-ordering thinking, approaches to gamification in college courses, and concludes with recommendations for faculty in approaching gamification.

The purpose of this study is to analyze the effectiveness of investigation group learning model based on Marzano’s instructional framework in improving students’ higher order thinking skills. The method used in this study was a quasi-experimental method with the matching only control group pretest-posttest design. Here, the data were collected through observations, questionnaires, and tests. The tests consisting of limited and extensive tests aim to analyze the effectiveness of the investigation group learning model based on Marzano’s instructional framework in improving students’ higher order thinking skills. The results of the study showed that the majority of students (>75%) have an increased level of higher order thinking skills (critical and creative thinking skills). It was proved by the results of statistical analysis where the sig. value < 0.05 and t(table) > t(count) .Thus, H0 is rejected meaning that there is a significant difference on students’ higher order thinking skills before and after applying the investigation group learning model based on Marzano’s instructional framework in the teaching and learning process. Then, if it is classified, the improvement of students’ critical and creative thinking skills is included into the medium category. Hence, it can be concluded that the investigation group learning model based on Marzano’s instructional framework is effective in improving students’ higher order thinking skills in social studies learning.
 Keywords: investigation group; Marzano’s learning dimensions; higher order thinking skills; critical thinking skills; creative thinking skills

The role that arts play in education is of much more than creative expression and aesthetic development. Cognitive skills and, increasingly, arts studies stress the importance of arts in enhancing thinking, including critical thinking skills. The study reveals how arts-based learning plays a crucial role in the development of higher order thinking skills through a review of current literature and application of qualitative methodologies, case studies and interviews with educators. In this paper, I argue that arts integration should be priority among advocates of holistic education, and as such, policy should begin to give more emphasis on arts integration as a productive way of accomplishing holistic education.

A concern in higher education is that most students do not acquire higher-order thinking skills, ‘cannot think’, are not engaged in reflective student-centred teaching and learning and do not always acquire technology skills. Numerous studies have indicated the importance of a digital learning environment that facilitates the acquisition of IT skills, reflective and critical thinking learning skills while creating an electronic portfolio. To establish the impact of portfolios on the reflective metacognitive learning and the development of higher-order thinking skills in student-teachers (n=167) in the field of science, qualitative and quantitative approaches were used to collect data. The results showed that for the majority of the participants (n=160) it was the first time that they had created an ePortfolio and engaged in reflective metacognitive learning experiences. The researcher was able to identify students’ weaknesses and strengths, their interests and goals in life. Most of them regarded the learning process as time consuming, did not wish to share poor learning experiences with others, found it difficult to express their learning experiences in a second language and were unable to create an ePortfolio in an organised manner as they were not capable of metacognitive reflection. This paper is relevant for higher education lecturers in developing students to become independent learners by using an ePortfolio.