The Role and Importance of Assessors in the Administration of Viticulture in the Little Carpathian Towns

The subject of the research are the materials of judicial practice (texts of court decisions and information sources, the content of information about the results of court hearings), data from sociological surveys.The purpose of the article is to identify the relationship between the knowledge of municipal law, local self-government or urbanism obtained during training at a university and subsequent professional activities related to local self-government carried out at different levels of public authority.The methodology. A comprehensive methodology was used, including legal and sociological research methods. Formal legal, legal technical and comparative legal were used among the legal methods. The sociological methods include the method of expert survey and the method of content analysis, which makes it possible to reveal the real position of the respondent, if he wants to disguise it not only the positions expressed, but also the words actually used were analyzed. The most repeatable ones were identified with the help of special software products.The main results, scope of application. Quite significant amendments were made to the Russian Constitution in 2020. One of the novels concerns a unified system of public power, the inclusion of a new term in the text of the constitution. The implementation of these novels in the legislation on local self-government is expected after the completion of the formation of the updated composition of the Federal Assembly. For this, it is necessary not only to reveal the term itself and list the levels of public authority, but also to establish new principles of their relationship, incl. in a sense, uniform standards, rules and requirements for state and local authorities. One of the possible consequences of this may be an increase in the prestige of work in local self-government bodies, a change in attitudes towards work in local self-government bodies.Conclusions. The analysis of the materials of law enforcement practice, the data of opinion polls on trust in local self-government bodies, attitude to the results of the work of local self-government bodies and their officials show that of all levels of government the municipal level is least trusted. Unfortunately, such an attitude begins to form in the process of training future employees of public authorities at different levels.

The growth of Sharia-based businesses in Indonesia has prompted both bank and non-bank financing institutions to adhere to Sharia principles, establishing a framework of rights and obligations with consumers. Imbalances in this relationship occasionally result in defaults, leading to dispute resolution through litigation and alternative methods. This research, utilizing a normative approach, specifically delves into the accessibility principle within alternative dispute resolution (ADR) for Sharia economic disputes in Indonesia. Accessibility, a pivotal ADR tenet, is examined in the context of Basyarnas (National Sharia Arbitration Board), where its effectiveness relies on information and understanding levels between consumers and Sharia financial institutions. Basyarnas-MUI emerges as a potential community choice for Sharia dispute resolution, with envisioned enhanced accessibility through regional representative offices. Conversely, challenges in accessibility are noted in APS Institutions under OJK auspices, impeding public participation. Mandatory mediation in disputes adjudicated by religious courts offers an accessible avenue for dispute resolution. However, persistent obstacles exist in implementing the accessibility principle for alternative Sharia economic dispute resolution in Indonesia, particularly concerning constraints on out-of-court dispute resolution governed by standard contracts for economic activities

POLITICAL parties first appeared in Russia when the Tsar, on October 17, 1905, issued the Manifesto granting civil liberties and popular representation. Prior to this, the government had jealously suppressed every attempt to form parties, convinced that they would ultimately destroy autocracy. Actually one of the causes of the downfall of the Tsarist regime was the fact that during the brief lifespan of Russian parliamentarism the forces supporting the new constitutional system had had no time to organize effectively or to establish a working relationship with the government. The socialist secret organizations, which had arisen at the end of the nineteenth century and were active underground, were neither willing nor able to achieve this. Their conspiratorial nature deprived them of the chief characteristic of political parties-they were not responsible to public opinion. Liberal public opinion found a partial outlet in the organs of rural and municipal selfgovernment. Periodically these organs would summon conventions to discuss their immediate economic and financial problems; but local self-government was so closely bound up with the general political situation that broader political issues could not be avoided. Many participants of the Zemstvo conventions joined the secret Liberation League formed in 1903 with the purpose of fighting for political freedom and popular representation. The Liberation League could by no means be termed a political party. It was rather a kind of war coalition of diverse groups, monarchists and republicans, liberals and socialists, temporarily united to carry on a guerilla fight against the common enemy-autocracy. Of the League's open activities the most important was the publication abroad, first at Stuttgart and then in Paris, of the weekly Osvobozhdenie (Liberation). Next to outspoken criticism of the government it contained a positive program and detailed projects for the most urgently needed reforms. The white paper-covered issues of Osvobozhdenie were smuggled into Russia where they were widely circulated and eagerly read, preparing the minds for the inevitable and long overdue constitutional reform. Inside Russia, the League worked underground, secretly recruiting members and sympathizers; it also arranged meetings of learned societies, ban-

Social services provide a person with intervention and care from society. By activating a person through the use of social services, an individual reintegrates into social functioning, where he finds his natural place and thus, through his actions, the society keeps developing. Conceptually and competently, local self-government has suitable conditions for its citizens to provide social services that respond to their needs, as well as taking into account how the citizens' needs are concretized and what the demand for them is. Here, however, there is a need for research and analysis of demand, which the municipality should carry out in search of the types and forms of social services that it wants to effectively provide for the citizen. The aim of the article is to determine; what are the limits of municipal self-government in providing "personal social services" in Slovakia. The research was focused on identifying the most common problems and the demand for social services in relation to municipalities. In the 5 author's questionnaires, we focused on the hierarchy of the number of problems expressed, which most often led to the municipal self-government-the executive body of the municipality, the mayor. On the hierarchy of the most common problems, sets of questions and items were compiled for their solution by the municipal self-government. The results showed that mayors are limited by law in the provision of social services, but are not able to provide social services for the category of unemployed in terms of citizen activation.

Today, a municipality is automatically considered as a basic local self-governing (and autonomous) community. Nevertheless, we need to keep in mind that the contemporary understanding of the municipality and its regulations are the fruit of the long development that - in Central Europe - began over 150 years ago as the foundations for modern regulations were laid. This paper briefly illustrates the draft and legal bases for the modern concept of municipal administration. It focuses on the legal position of the most important statutory municipalities in the Habsburg Monarchy at which it uses the town of Ljubljana as an example. The paper also deals with the important issue of the relationship between the institutions of self-government and autonomy. Based on the analysis of the historical legal sources, it shows that local autonomy should not be equated, as is often the case, with the concept of local self-government. It further maintains that the old Austrian municipalities were at least formally autonomous and that their autonomy was limited in the interest of the state. On the basis of archive sources for Ljubljana, it ascertains that the municipality was autonomous only as far as it could choose the moment and mode of regulating certain municipal affairs and as far as it could take into account local specifics in adopting the norms, which proved to be quite sufficient under the given circumstances. Namely, the municipal autonomy was one of the factors that significantly contributed to the rise in the standard of living for the inhabitants of Ljubljana at the end of the 19th century. Last but not least, it also contributed to the victory in the struggle for the Slovenian national rights. Key words: • municipality • statutory municipality • town • local government • self-government • autonomy • municipal self-government • municipal autonomy • independent sphere of activity • delegated sphere of activity • town charter • Austrian Monarchy • Ljubljana • Slovenia

The Constitution of Kenya specifically recognizes the freedom of association to form and belong to trade unions. However, despite the adoption of the Labour Relations Act, union practice is still hampered by excessive restrictions. The EPZ companies are labor intensive requiring a large amount of labor to produce its goods or service and thus, the welfare of the employees play a key role in their functions. This study sought to determine the effect of trade union practices on employees’ welfare at export processing zones industries in Athi River, Kenya. The specific objectives sought to determine the effect of collective bargaining agreements, industrial action, dispute resolution and trade union representation on employees’ welfare at export processing zones industries in Athi River, Kenya. The study employed a descriptive research design. Primary data was collected by means of a structured questionnaire. The target population of the study was employees in EPZ companies in Athi River, Kenya with large employees enrolled in active trade unions. The unit of observation was the employees in the trade unions. The findings indicated that collective bargaining agreements had a positive and significant coefficient with employees’ welfare at the EPZ industries. Industrial action had a positive but non-significant effect with employees’ welfare at Export Processing Zones industries. Dispute resolution had a positive and significant coefficient with employees’ welfare at the EPZ industries. Trade union representation had a positive and significant coefficient with employees’ welfare at the EPZ industries. The study recommended that trade union should avoid the path of confrontation but continue dialogue through the collective bargaining process and demands should be realistic in nature with what is obtainable in the related industry. An existence of a formal two way communication between management and trade unions will ensure that right message is properly understood and on time too. Keywords: Collective Bargaining Agreements, Industrial Action, Dispute Resolution, Trade Union Representation, Employees Welfare & Export Processing Zones

This paper examines the evolution of legal dispute resolution mechanisms within non-litigation channels, focusing on the traditional villages of Blitar and Karangasem in Indonesia from 1984 to 2023. There is a need to understand how local wisdom contributes to effective dispute resolution, particularly in regions where formal legal institutions may be limited. This research analyses how indigenous communities integrate Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) principles with customary (adat) law, fostering a hybrid system that balances cultural values and contemporary legal frameworks. The paper draws on ethnographic fieldwork, in-depth interviews with traditional leaders, and case studies of dispute settlements in the selected villages. Historical records and legal documents regarding customary disputer solutions were also examined. The results indicate that the villagers have modified their traditional approaches over the last four decades to deal with contemporary problems such as land disputes, family conflicts, and governance issues. This study also focuses on consensus, reconciliation, and restorative justice, which are considered key factors for social cohesion and dealing with social conflicts. The findings highlight that integrating ADR with adat-based mechanisms strengthens legal pluralism and provides an alternative resolution of issues; this integration is more appropriate than litigation in rural, culturally diverse societies. Moreover, the study suggests that these non-litigation practices are socially cohesive between community members because they ensure that dispute resolution is aligned with the community’s cultural norms and common identity. The study also theorizes that justice and social order can be maintained through a better understanding and empowerment of customary laws. This research provides insight into the wider world of legal pluralism as it explores how traditional modes of dispute resolution remain important within modern legal systems.

Essay. The subject of this research is to provide an elaborate analysis of current municipal reform in the RF and assess its impact on the self-government place, the role and development trends within the system of the Russian statehood. This paper aims either prove or disprove a hypothesis about the impact of adopted legal regulations on local self-government in the RF in view of the amendments to the RF Constitution, and make a contribution to scientific understanding of this issue.Methodology. The research methodology is built by combining such methods of scientific knowledge as analysis (to study normative legal acts on the research topic), synthesis (to analyse theoretical sources and make generalizations), comparative legal method (to study and compare legal norms), logical method (to identify the peculiarities of the research object), system-structural approach (to define the role of local self-government in the Russian statehood), the method of legal hermeneutics (to provide an interpretation of legal documents) and the synergistic method which allowed to analyse the system of local government in cooperation with state authorities.Results. Local self-government shall be recognized as the basis of a democratic regime and present-day Russian statehood. The adoption of the 1993 Constitution resulted in numerous normative acts which regulate the system of local self-government, including The Federal Law of October 6, 2003 No. 131-FZ “On the General Principles of Local Self-Government Organization in the Russian Federation”. However, regular changes to this law regarding local self-government have raised a number of concerns about uncertainty and contradictions in the legal system. Thus, along with positive effects of ongoing reforms, there are some negative trends including current tightening of local self-government officials’ liability in Russia as well as the increasing gap between the population and local self-government, uncertainty of legal solutions and enforcement practice. Members of the expert community, municipalities and practitioners have high hopes for the new legal framework in the field of local self-government, which is being developed following the amendments to the Constitution of the Russian Federation in 2020. As a result, strengthening and expansion of local self-government powers are expected, which will increase citizens’ involvement in resolving issues of local importance. However, draft law No. 40361-8 on local self-government submitted to the State Duma on December 16, 2021, provides for the liquidation of the settlement level and the reduction in the number of lower-level local self-government bodies. As a result, the gap between the population and local self-government bodies has highly increased. In addition, the draft law strengthened responsibility of the heads of municipalities to the highest officials of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, which implies more dependence of lower-level authorities on the state.Conclusion. Legislation is rapidly adjusting to the existing realities rather than establishing a legal basis for local self-government development. In order to restore the essence of local self-government, deformed as a result of systematic changes in the legal basis of local self-government, it is necessary to improve the submitted bill, strengthening local self-government as a factor in the sustainable development of a democratic Russian state.

Café Space, Communication, Creativity, and Materialism

Across the Global South and North alike, courts are overburdened, legal costs deter participation, andjustice often arrives late. Decentralizing justice—through empowered local self-governance institutionsand community-level dispute resolution—offers a complementary pathway that can widen access, reducedelay, and embed justice within everyday life. This paper develops a comprehensive account of why andhow to strengthen the legal frameworks that enable grassroots dispute resolution. It synthesizes theoryfrom legal pluralism, polycentric governance, and restorative justice; surveys comparative experiences(including village or barangay justice, customary forums, community courts, and state-recognizedmediation); and examines opportunities and pitfalls in ope-rationalizing decentralization in contemporaryconstitutional democracies (with illustrations from India, Kenya, the Philippines, South Africa, NewZealand, and Canada). The analysis foregrounds the tension between accessibility and rights protection,emphasizing due process, gender equality, minority safeguards, and appellate oversight as nonnegotiablearchitecture.Methodologically, the paper adopts a doctrinal and comparative approach, augmented by a designoriented“law-in-action” framework that translates principles into implementable institutional blueprints.It proposes a model statute and policy toolkit: (1) clear legal recognition of community forums; (2)jurisdictional design focused on civil, family, tenancy, neighborhood, and low-value commercial matters;(3) standardized training and accreditation for community mediators; (4) layered oversight and reviewby regular courts; (5) data, funding, and outcome-tracking; and (6) digital-first infrastructure with ethicalonline dispute resolution (ODR). The paper concludes that decentralization can democratize justice onlyif it is normative anchored in constitutional values, procedural disciplined, and empirically stewardedthrough evidence-based governance.

The year 2025 will mark XXXV years of local government. With its rebirth in 1990, the proces of shaping social awareness of local government, community spirit and building a civic socjety began at the municipal level. In the late 1990s, local government structures were expanded to include the district and voivodeship levels as a result of implementing the public administration reform. The following years have seen a progressive process of creating forms in local government communities from the bottom up that are intended to encourage members of these communities to participate more actively in the process of co-deciding on the development of individual local government communities. This is precisely what forms of social participation are for, which are intended to encourage members of local communities to identify more broadly with the community and its problems, and to jointly search for the best solutions for residents of self-government communities. One of the most important parts of local communities are young people who expect to be allowed to show themselves against the background of the rest of the community, to emphasize their problems and expectations related to their resolution by local authorities. By amending the provisions of the Act on Municipal Self-Government, as well as the Act on County Self-Government and the Act on Voivodeship Self-Government, the legislator created the legal basis for creating youth councils at individual levels of local government. Local government authorities were tasked with supporting and promoting the idea of self-government among residents of self-government communities, especially among young people, engaging them in matters that are important to them.

Youth Councils as Entities of Youth Participation in Local Communities – Legal Analysis of Art. 5b of the Act on Municipal Self-Government of March 8, 1990

This study aims to examine the culturally based dispute resolution system known as Kankain Karkara, administered by the Mananwir customary institution within the Byak community in Biak, Papua, and to analyze its role in restoring social harmony amid the coexistence of formal and customary legal systems, including in disputes involving migrants. This study uses a legal anthropology approach through participant observation and in-depth interviews with customary authorities and community members, both indigenous residents and migrants. The analysis is grounded in the framework of legal pluralism and the concept of semi-autonomous social fields to examine the relationship between state law and customary law in dispute resolution practices. The novelty of this research lies in the finding that the Kankain Karkara system is not confined to homogeneous customary communities but operates as an inclusive and restorative mechanism capable of integrating migrants as subjects of dispute resolution through reconciliation processes based on local values. In addition, this study identifies the phenomenon of post-adjudication, in which disputes that have been formally decided by state courts continue to be processed through customary forums to achieve social certainty and the restoration of inter-family relations. Findings show that the Kankain Karkara system operates through a tiered and restorative mechanism involving two levels of customary authority: Mananwir Keret, which addresses intra-clan disputes based on reputational–ethical authority, and Mananwir MNU, which functions as a mediator for inter-community and cross-identity disputes through structural–genealogical authority. This study concludes that the coexistence of formal and customary justice systems Biak does not represent a jurisdictional conflict but rather a form of complementary functional differentiation, in which state courts provide procedural certainty, while Kankain Karkara delivers substantive justice through reconciliation and the restoration of social order.

The people In the early seventeenth century, Ottoman Jewry comprised immigrants from the Catholic world as well as members of indigenous communities, which the Ottomans inherited together with the countries they conquered. Some of these countries were Muslim and others were Greek Orthodox. The indigenous Jewish communities of the Muslim world usually spoke Arabic, while those of the Greek Orthodox world were generally Greek speakers. The members of the immigrant communities that grew up in the empire from 1492 on usually spoke a Castilian dialect of Spanish, but also a southern and Sicilian dialect of Italian, as well as Portuguese. During the seventeenth century, the flow of Jewish refugees from Catholic Europe to the Ottoman Empire came to a virtual standstill. This was because the pool of ‘New Christians’ in Spain and Portugal who still wished to live in ‘a Jewish place’ had dried up. Another, more compelling, reason was the rise in international trade, which led various Catholic countries to suffer the presence of ‘New Christians’ who secretly observed – or openly reverted to – their former Jewish religion, for their commercial contribution. In certain places, such as Leghorn (Livorno) (in 1593), such Jews were even awarded rights very similar to those granted to Christians. In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, the globalisation of commerce led to Jewish immigration of another kind; the new immigrants were Jews who held on to the nationality of their Catholic countries of origin and settled in the empire for economic reasons.

This study examines whether geographical indications (GIs) truly enhance producer quality, which is a main regulatory justification for the GIs’ existence. We compare the quality of wine producers with and without GIs and test for the effectiveness of GIs based on (a) the strictness of GIs’ production standards and (b) GIs’ organizational characteristics as a collective brand. We argue that GIs encourage producer quality because they attenuate free‐riding problems, provide incentives to invest and facilitate knowledge sharing. Focusing on the Spanish wine industry, the results reveal that except for wineries with the lowest GI category (i.e., protected geographical indication), GI wineries show higher quality than non‐GI wineries. We also observe that more stringent categories increase quality but at a decreasing rate. Regarding the influence of organizational features, we found that collective action problems seem to be relevant. First, above a certain threshold, the number of producers affiliated with a GI decreases the wine producer's average quality (i.e., it shows an inverted U‐shaped relationship with quality). Second, GIs covering very large geographic areas are found to be less effective. [EconLit Citations: L15, Q12, Q18].