The Review on Eye-Tracking Studies in L2 Assessment

In the editorial to the first issue of Language Testing Journal, which appeared in June 1984, the editors, Arthur Hughes and Don Porter, state that “This new journal has come into being as a forum devoted exclusively to the issues that concern those involved in, or simply interested in, the assessment of language ability in one form or another.” In addition to encouraging a wide writerand readership, they also assure that “the field covered will be a broad one”, encompassing diverse language teaching learning and testing situations (1984, p. i). This approach is indeed reflected in the range of topics covered in this very first issue: from validity and reliability concerns in language tests, to research on the test taker’s perspective and to testing English as a Second Language versus Mother Tongue and English as a Foreign Language. The contributions to the journal upon its inception mapped out at that point in time the basic areas of research in the language testing terrain, setting the stage for professional developments in the field that have been shaped to a great extent by the journal’s publications. It is thus apt that this current issue, which marks the 30th anniversary of the journal, attempts to examine via the lens of language assessment literacy the knowledge base that underlies and typifies language testing and assessment as a discipline of study. Discussion on the nature of assessment literacy, a concept introduced with reference to the knowledge assessors need to possess (Stiggins, 1991), reflects an ongoing debate on the nature of the professional knowledge in the field of language testing. The debate has emerged more forcibly as of late due to an increased demand for and use of assessment data by a more diverse group of stakeholders than before, many of whom are novices in the field and have limited or partial knowledge in language testing and assessment and its concerns. The discussion is conducted on inter-related themes: the first focuses on assessment literacy in the language domain, that is, whether there is an agreed-upon theoretical, practical, and experiential knowledge base required for fulfilling assessment and testing functions in language-related situations; the second relates to whether language testing professionals should act as gatekeepers and allow in only those who are considered assessment literate, or whether the profession should reach out to impart differential language assessment knowledge according to needs, to wide circles of applied linguists, teachers, parents, bureaucrats, and politicians. Another issue that is currently 480126 LTJ30310.1177/0265532213480126Language TestingEditorial 2013

Contents: Introduction. Part I: Important Social Contexts in Research on Second Language Teaching and Learning. Introduction. M.E. Brisk, Bilingual Education. M.R. Hawkins, ESL in Elementary Education. P.A. Duff, ESL in Secondary Schools: Programs, Problematics, and Possibilities. D.E. Murray, ESL in Adult Education. S. Carkin, English for Academic Purposes. P. Master, English for Specific Purposes. C. Roberts, English in the Workplace. B. Tomlinson, English as a Foreign Language: Matching Procedures to the Context of Learning. Y. Kachru, Teaching and Learning of World Englishes. Part II: Methods in Second Language Research. Introduction. L. Harklau, Ethnography and Ethnographic Research on Second Language Teaching and Learning. L. van Lier, Case Study. A. Lazaraton, Quantitative Research Methods. D. Nunan, Classroom Research. A. Burns, Action Research. Part III: Applied Linguistics and Second Language Research. Introduction. T. Pica, Second Language Acquisition Research and Applied Linguistics. S.L. McKay, Sociolinguistics and Second Language Learning. J. Zuengler, K.M. Cole, Language Socialization and Second Language Learning. G. Kasper, C. Roever, Pragmatics in Second Language Learning. J.P. Lantolf, Sociocultural and Second Language Learning Research: An Exegesis. N. Markee, Conversation Analysis for Second Language Acquisition. R.B. Kaplan, Contrastive Rhetoric. S. Conrad, Corpus Linguistics and L2 Teaching. Part IV: Second Language Processes and Development. Introduction. G. Ioup, Age in Second Language Development. R. DeKeyser, A. Juffs, Cognitive Considerations in L2 Learning. Z. Han, L. Selinker, Fossilization in L2 Learners. M. Swain, The Output Hypothesis: Theory and Research. E. Tarone, Speaking in a Second Language. M. Rost, L2 Listening. T.G. Wiley, Second Language Literacy and Biliteracy. P. Byrd, Instructed Grammar. D.E. Eskey, Reading in a Second Language. I.S.P. Nation, Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. J.S. Hedgcock, Taking Stock of Research and Pedagogy in L2 Writing. E. Hinkel, Analyses of Second Language Text and What Can Be Learned From Them. Part V: Methods and Curricula in Second Language Teaching. Introduction. S.J. Savignon, Communicative Language Teaching: Strategies and Goals. S. Fotos, Traditional and Grammar Translation Methods for Second Language Teaching. J. Williams, Form-Focused Instruction. M.A. Snow, A Model of Academic Literacy for Integrated Language and Content Instruction. R. Ellis, Instructed Language Learning and Task-Based Teaching. M. Celce-Murcia, E. Olshtain, Discourse-Based Approaches: A New Framework for Second Language Teaching and Learning. C.A. Chapelle, Computer-Assisted Language Learning. N.J. Anderson, L2 Learning Strategies. Part VI: Second Language Testing and Assessment. T. McNamara, Introduction. A.J. Kunnan, Language Assessment From a Wider Context. A. Davies, C. Elder, Validity and Validation in Language Testing. M. Chalhoub-Deville, C. Deville, A Look Back at and Forward to What Language Testers Measure. T. Lumley, A. Brown, Research Methods in Language Testing. D. Douglas, Testing Languages for Specific Purposes. C. Leung, Classroom Teacher Assessment of Second Language Development: Construct as Practice. Part VII: Identity, Culture, and Critical Pedagogy in Second Language Teaching and Learning. Introduction. T. Ricento, Considerations of Identity in L2 Learning. M. Byram, A. Feng, Teaching and Researching Intercultural Competence. S. Canagarajah, Critical Pedagogy in L2 Learning and Teaching. Part VIII: Language Planning and Policy and Language Rights. R.B. Baldauf, Jr., Introduction. R.B. Baldauf, Jr., Language Planning and Policy Research: An Overview. T. van Els, Status Planning for Learning and Teaching. A.J. Liddicoat, Corpus Planning: Syllabus and Materials Development. R.B. Baldauf, Jr., R.B. Kaplan, Language-in-Education Planning. D.E. Ager, Prestige and Image Planning. S. May, Language Planning and Minority Language Rights.

05–314Alderson, J. Charles (Lancaster U, UK) & Ari Huhta, The development of a suite of computer-based diagnostic tests based on the Common European Framework. Language Testing (London, UK) 22.3 (2005), 301–320.05–315Al-Hamly, Mashael & Christine Coombe (Kuwait U, Kuwait), To change or not to change: investigating the value of MCQ answer changing for Gulf Arab students. Language Testing (London, UK) 22.4 (2005), 509–531.05–316Broadfoot, Patricia M. (U of Bristol, UK), Dark alleys and blind bends: testing the language of learning. Language Testing (London, UK) 22.2 (2005), 123–141.05–317Cumming, Alister (U of Toronto, Canada; acumming@oise.utoronto.ca), Robert Kantor, Kyoko Baba, Usman Erdosy, Keanre Eouanzoui & Mark James, Differences in written discourse in independent and integrated prototype tasks for next generation TOEFL. Assessing Writing (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) 10.1 (2005), 5–43.05–318Eckes, Thomas (TestDaF Institute, the Netherlands), Melanie Ellis, Vita Kalnberzina, Karmen Piorn, Claude Springer, Krisztina Szollás & Constance Tsagari, Progress and problems in reforming public language examinations in Europe: cameos from the Baltic States, Greece, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia, France and Germany. Language Testing (London,UK) 22.3 (2005), 355–377.05–319Figueras, Neus (Department of Education, Generalitat de Catalunya, Spain), Brian North, Sauli Takala, Norman Verhelst & Piet Van Avermaet, Relating examinations to the Common European Framework: a manual. Language Testing (London, UK) 22.3 (2005), 261–279.05–320Green, Anthony (Cambridge ESOL Examinations, Cambridge, UK), EAP study recommendations and score gains on the IELTS Academic Writing test. Assessing Writing (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) 10.1 (2005), 44–60.05–321Green, Rita & Dianne Wall (Lancaster U, UK), Language testing in the military: problems, politics and progress. Language Testing (London,UK) 22.3 (2005), 379–398.05–322Hasselgreen, Angela (The U of Bergen, Norway), Assessing the language of young learners. Language Testing (London,UK) 22.3 (2005), 337–354.05–323Klein, Joseph (kleinj@mail.biu.ac.il) & David Taub, The effect of variations in handwriting and print on evaluation of student essays. Assessing Writing (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) 10.2 (2005), 134–148.05–324Little, David (Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland), The Common European Framework and the European Language Portfolio: involving learners and their judgements in the assessment process. Language Testing (London, UK) 22.3 (2005), 321–336.05–325Lumley, Tom & Barry O'Sullivan (Australian Council for Educational Research, Australia), The effect of test-taker gender, audience and topic on task performance in tape-mediated assessment of speaking. Language Testing (London,UK) 22.4 (2005), 415–437.05–326Luxia, Qi (Guandong U of Foreign Studies, China), Stakeholders' conflicting aims undermine the washback function of a high-stakes test. Language Testing (London, UK) 22.2 (2005), 142–173.05–327Poehner, Matthew E. & James P. Lantolf (The Pennsylvania State U, USA), Dynamic assessment in the language classroom. Language Teaching Research (London, UK) 9.3 (2005), 233–265.05–328Stansfield, Charles W. & William E. Hewitt (Second Language Testing Inc., USA), Examining the predictive validity of a screening test for court interpreters. Language Testing (London, UK) 22.4 (2005), 438–462.05–329Trites, Latricia (Murray State U, USA) & Mary McGroarty, Reading to learn and reading to integrate: new tasks for reading comprehension tests?Language Testing (London, UK) 22.2 (2005), 174–210.05–330Uiterwijk, Henny (Citogroep, Arnem, the Netherlands) & Ton Vallen, Linguistic sources of item bias for second generation immigrants in Dutch tests. Language Testing (London, UK) 22.2 (2005), 211–234.05–331Weems, Gail H. (Arkansas Little Rock U, USA; ghweems@ualr.edu), Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie & Daniel Lustig, Profiles of respondents who respond inconsistently to positively- and negatively-worded items on rating scales. Evaluation & Research in Education (Clevedon, UK) 17.1 (2003), 45–60.05–332Weir, Cyril J. (Roehampton U, UK), Limitations of the Common European Framework for developing comparable examinations and tests. Language Testing (London, UK) 22.3 (2005), 281–300.05–333Xi, Xiaoming (U of California, USA), Do visual chunks and planning impact performance on the graph description task in the SPEAK exam?Language Testing (London, UK) 22.4 (2005), 463–508.

Unlike previous book publications in the area of language assessment and testing, Measurement and Evaluation in Post-Secondary ESL offers a practical and concise introduction to English as a second language assessment and testing. It does not include intricate theoretical themes nor complicated mathematical calculations, but rather it focuses on the core elements of the subject matter. This book enables both ESL professionals and advanced ESL learners to interpret second language testing theories appropriately and it allows a better understanding of what is being discussed through selected examples. There are seven chapters in the book and they cover essential concepts of second language assessment and testing, various testing techniques, test development procedures, effective and innovative methods of evaluating second language skills, and they also discuss assessors’ roles and responsibilities. This book has an appendix which provides selected examples from a few international high-stakes proficiency tests. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the principal concepts of language testing, such as the functions of language testing. It clearly describes key test types, such as placement, achievement, diagnostic tests as well as different approaches to language testing, including direct and indirect, communicative language testing, performance testing, and task-based testing. This chapter also contrasts the differences between criterion-referenced and norm-referenced testing. Besides using traditional testing approaches, the author highlights the role alternative language assessment plays by focusing on testing learners’ abilities of using the language for a specific purpose. For example, portfolio writing is used to test purposeful writing skills of the learner. When writing a learning portfolio, the learner plays a central role in recording and reflecting on their learning experience, strengths and weaknesses, seeking consultation from their teachers. Another form of alternative language assessment is self-assessment which is argued to encourage and support autonomous learning. Examples are given to demonstrate how such assessments are conducted. The author argues that traditional testing approaches should be used with non-traditional testing approaches to get a better idea of an individual’s language learning progress.

ix CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 Statement of problem 1 Statement of research questions 4 Organization of the study 4 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 5 1. Validation of a test in language testing and assessment 5 1.1. The conception of validity in language testing and assessment 5 1.2. Approaches in validation studies in language testing and assessment 8 1.2.1. The concept of validation in language testing and assessment 8 1.2.2. Main approaches in validation studies in language testing and assessment 9 2. The argument-based validation approach in language testing and assessment .10 2.1. Using interpretative argument in examining validity in language testing and assessment. .10 2.2. Conducting an argument-based validation study in language testing and assessment........ 11 2.3. Building a validity argument in language testing and assessment 13 2.4. A critical review of the argument-based validation approach 17 2.5. The argument-based validation approach in practice so far 19 3. English placement test (EPT) in language testing and assessment 28 3.1.English placement test (EPT) 28 3.2.Validation of an EPT 31 3.3.Testing and assessment of listening in second language 33 4. Summary 36 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 39 1. Context of the study 39 1.1. Description of the EPT test at Iowa State University (ISU) 39 1.1.1. About the test 39 1.1.2. Test purpose 42

This paper aims to review empirical and theoretical studies on foreign language enjoyment (FLE) and their application in language education research. Under the framework of positive psychology, this paper introduces the underlying dimensions and main tenet of FLE. Then it takes a closer look at how individual and social variables influence FLE. Subsequently, potential theoretical and pedagogical implications are provided. In the end, the limitations of studies in this domain are indicated, and suggestions for future studies are provided to extend the boundaries of the researches of FLE.

Language assessments and tests are used in many contexts and for a variety of purposes. This entry presents their various uses and explains the relationship between language test use and validity. In assessment of individual test takers, language tests can be used for gatekeeping, placement, and diagnostic purposes as well as for assessing learners' achievements. Additionally, language tests are used to evaluate the effectiveness of language programs or for research purposes. Language test use plays a central role in test validation, driving the validity argument. A validity argument provides an overall evaluation of the proposed interpretations and uses of test scores through an analysis of evidence for and against the intended interpretations and uses in addition to their consequences.

In addressing the recent special issue in Frontiers in Psychology, namely “Positive Psychology in Foreign and Second Language Education: Approaches and Applications,” calling language education researchers around the globe to study positive emotions, positive personality traits, and positive institutional tendencies and their implications for language education systems, stakeholders, and policy practices, the present conceptual review paper aims to acquaint language education researchers, practitioners, instructors, and learners with the main tenets of positive psychology and their application in second/foreign language (L2) education research. Accordingly, by drawing on the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions, we explain how individuals' positivity can result in their flourishment and development in any aspect of life, including L2 learning and teaching. Then, we introduce and conceptualize seven instances of positive psychology variables, namely academic engagement, emotion regulation, enjoyment, grit, loving pedagogy, resilience, and well-being and explain how these positive factors contribute to desirable L2 learning and teaching experiences. Subsequently, potential theoretical and pedagogical implications are drawn to enhance the quality and effectiveness of language education systems and their respective stakeholders. In the end, the limitations of the studies in this area are explicated, and suggestions for future research are provided to expand the extant literature on positive psychology in the domain of L2 education.

Ethical issues in language testing have become one of the major research topics and challenges in the field of language testing in the 21st century. Ethics refers to the normative rules governing relationships and behaviors among individuals in human society, as well as the behavior order among people, society, and nations. Any group or professional behavior that affects society as a whole carries inherent ethical requirements. The exploration of ethical issues in language testing began to gain prominence in the field after Messick expanded the concept of validity in language testing. With the development of language testing, researchers have increasingly focused on the study of testing ethics. In 2000, the International Test Commission (ITC) issued a set of “Ethical Guidelines”, where ethical issues were reflected to varying degrees in various principles. In 2007, based on the specific implementation of the “Ethical Guidelines”, the ITC issued corresponding “Code of Conduct” to define the responsibilities and obligations of language testers and test takers. In essence, ethical issues in language testing fall within the scope of validity in language testing. This paper, starting from the current status of research on ethical issues in language testing in China, which is still in its infancy in both theory and practice, uses literature review, descriptive research, and qualitative analysis. Within the framework of validity, it discusses the factors involved in ethical issues in language testing: development of teaching and examination syllabus, test item production, exam preparation and administration, organization of scoring and score interpretation, result statistical analysis, feedback, and summarization. Based on the “Ethical Guidelines” and the corresponding “Code of Conduct” issued by the International Test Commission, it summarizes the causes of ethical issues and proposes corresponding solutions for each phase. Finally, some suggestions are made for the development of ethical issues in language testing.

In this paper, I start by demonstrating the importance of language assessmentespecially of English language. Then, in the second section,I attempt toconceptualize language testing and assessment by providing various definitions. Also in this section, there isa literature review of the major mainstream tenets of language assessment addedwith my critical views about their working, ethicality, validity and reliability. While the thirdsection is on CLT and allocated, firstly, for critical tenets of language testing and assessment particularlyofEnglish language, secondly, language assessment literacy, thirdly, ethicality of language assessment and fourthly the role of language assessment literacy on the language assessment ethicality; they are elucidated in different subsections. Also throughout this section, I explain CLTand its workingin the field, in what aspects and to what extent itprovidesethicality, reliability and validity with giving my critical views within CALxand critical pedagogy framework. Section four is for explaininghow appropriate and practicable to introduce criticalEnglish language testing and assessment to my professional context as a TESOL teacher in some English departments at the universities of Kurdistan Region/Iraq,making clear to what extent it is feasible and what are the educational challenges and obstacles to it.For explicating those issues, I refer to my recent experience as a TESOL teacherin my professional context.

Glenn Fulcher is the Professor of Applied Linguistics and Language Assessment in the English Department at the University of Leicester, UK. He got his PhD in Applied Linguistics and Language Testing from Lancaster University (1993) and his MA in Applied Linguistics from the University of Birmingham (1987). Professor Fulcher has been the editor of Sage's Language Testing (2006-2015) and an influential member of the Executive Board of The International Language Testing Association (ILTA) for many years. He has extensive experience and expertise in the philosophy of assessment, test design, the development of data-based rating scales as well as teaching language assessment. Professor Fulcher's book Language Testing and Assessment co-authored by Davidson (2007) has been the main resource for the ELT masters' courses in language testing in Iran for many years. Among his other publications are Re-examining Language Testing: A Philosophical and Social Inquiry (2015, the winner of the 2016 SAGE/LTA Book Award), The Rutledge Handbook of Language Testing (2012), Practical Language Testing (2010), Testing Second Language Speaking (2003) , and Writing in the English Language Classroom (1997). In an online interview, Professor Glenn Fulcher has joined Dr. Bahram Behin who is a zealous adherent of Fulcher's philosophy of assessment and has presented language testing courses based on his books.

In language assessment there is awareness that at a fundamental level it is a subfield of applied linguistics. Hence a productive understanding of that relationship is to ask, first, how we understand the discipline of applied linguistics and, second, how language assessment can, together with other subfields, be shown to belong to it. Employing the idea of applied linguistics as a discipline of design, we can identify at least three subfields. These involve the development of three prime applied linguistic artefacts: language policies and language management plans; language tests and assessments; and language curricula and courses. Abstracting and considering more closely their technical function and the nuclear meaning of design of that function, we may further investigate a number of technically stamped primitives or fundamental concepts. These derive from the coherence of the technical modality with other dimensions of reality, yielding the foundational concepts of homogeneity, range, reliability, validity, differentiation, sensitivity, rationality, meaningfulness, appropriateness, usefulness, alignment, accountability, fairness, and trustworthiness. From these fundamentals, in turn, emerge various principles of responsible design applicable to all three kinds of applied linguistic artefacts: policies, tests and courses. The three subfields not only have principles in common, but by virtue of that also have a reciprocal relationship: the one can learn design lessons from the other. This article will refer first to the notion of language assessment as subfield of applied linguistics, second to the principles of responsible design, and third to the reciprocity among applied linguistic designs as various as language policies, tests, and courses.

This study investigates the psychological impact of corrective feedback on English as a Second Language (ESL) students' language anxiety using a quantitative research approach. Conducted among 80 intermediate-level ESL learners in Lahore and Karachi, Pakistan, the research examines how different types and frequencies of corrective feedback, explicit correction, metalinguistic feedback, recasts, clarification requests, and elicitation, affect learners’ emotional responses. Data were collected through a structured questionnaire incorporating items from the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) and were analysed using descriptive statistics, independent samples t-tests, and Pearson correlation coefficients. The findings reveal that explicit correction and metalinguistic feedback are most strongly associated with elevated levels of language anxiety, while recasts result in significantly lower anxiety responses. A moderate positive correlation was also found between feedback frequency and anxiety levels, indicating that more frequent corrective input can exacerbate learners' emotional discomfort. These results highlight the need for pedagogical practices that balance effective error correction with emotional sensitivity. The study underscores the importance of using indirect feedback strategies and fostering a psychologically supportive classroom environment to enhance ESL learners' confidence and communicative engagement. References Aljasser, A. (2025). Investigating EFL students’ perceptions of feedback: A comparative study of instructor and ChatGPT-generated responses in academic writing. Education and Information Technologies, 1-22. Biju, N., Abdelrasheed, N. S. G., Bakiyeva, K., Prasad, K. D. V., & Jember, B. (2024). Which one? AI-assisted language assessment or paper format: An exploration of the impacts on foreign language anxiety, learning attitudes, motivation, and writing performance. Language Testing in Asia, 14(1), 45. Charalampous, A., & Darra, M. (2025). The effect of teacher's feedback on student academic achievement: A literature review. Journal of Education and Learning, 14(1), 42–53. Chen, H., Rasool, U., Hu, T., & Bhattacharyya, E. (2025). Examining the beliefs of non-native English-speaking teachers and EFL students about WCF in enhancing writing skills. Acta Psychologica, 256, 105064. Cheng, X., & Xu, J. (2025). Engaging second language (L2) students with synchronous written corrective feedback in technology-enhanced learning contexts: A mixed-methods study. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 12(1), 1–13. Darazi, M. A., Khoso, A. K., & Mahesar, K. A. (2023). Investigating the effects of ESL teachers’ feedback on ESL undergraduate students’ level of motivation, academic performance, and satisfaction: Mediating role of students’ motivation. Pakistan Journal of Educational Research, 6(2). Ebadijalal, M., & Yousofi, N. (2023). The impact of mobile-assisted peer feedback on EFL learners’ speaking performance and anxiety: Does language make a difference? The Language Learning Journal, 51(1), 112–130. Gregersen, T. (2023). Feedback matters: Thwarting the negative impact of language anxiety. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 43, 56–63. Hajiyeva, B. (2024). Language anxiety in ESL learners: Causes, effects, and mitigation strategies. EuroGlobal Journal of Linguistics and Language Education, 1(1), 119–133. Liu, C. C., Hwang, G. J., Yu, P., Tu, Y. F., & Wang, Y. (2025). Effects of an automated corrective feedback-based peer assessment approach on students’ learning achievement, motivation, and self-regulated learning conceptions in foreign language pronunciation. Educational Technology Research and Development, 1-22. Mao, Z., Lee, I., & Li, S. (2024). Written corrective feedback in second language writing: A synthesis of naturalistic classroom studies. Language Teaching, 1-29. Patra, I., Alazemi, A., Al-Jamal, D., & Gheisari, A. (2022). The effectiveness of teachers’ written and verbal corrective feedback (CF) during formative assessment (FA) on male language learners’ academic anxiety (AA), academic performance (AP), and attitude toward learning (ATL). Language Testing in Asia, 12(1), 19. Rassaei, E. (2023). The interplay between corrective feedback timing and foreign language anxiety in L2 development. Language Teaching Research, 13621688231195141. Sari, E., & Han, T. (2024). The impact of automated writing evaluation on English as a foreign language learners' writing self-efficacy, self-regulation, anxiety, and performance. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 40(5), 2065–2080. Shahid, N., Asif, M., & Pasha, D. A. (2022). Effect of Internet Addiction on School Going Children. Inverge Journal of Social Sciences, 1(1), 13–55. https://doi.org/10.63544/ijss.v1i1.3 Wang, D. (2024). Teacher-versus AI-generated (Poe application) corrective feedback and language learners’ writing anxiety, complexity, fluency, and accuracy. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 25(3), 37–56. Wang, J., Zhou, T., & Fan, C. (2025). Impact of communication anxiety on L2 WTC of middle school students: Mediating effects of growth language mindset and language learning motivation. PLoS ONE, 20(1), e0304750. Watcharapol, W., Phornrat, T., Teavakorn, K., Tidarat, N., Kanokpan, W., Somkiat, K., & Nattawut, J. (2023). Preferences for oral corrective feedback: Are language proficiency, first language, foreign language classroom anxiety, and enjoyment involved? Journal of Language and Education, 9(1), 172–184. Xiong, Y., Zhang, Q., Zhao, L., Liu, S., Guan, H., Sui, Y., ... & Lee, K. M. R. (2024). A meta-analysis and systematic review of foreign language anxiety interventions among students. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 43(5-6), 620–650.

This paper aims to present an overview of language testing in Thailand. Language testing practices in the past are also reviewed. Attention is paid to the washback effects of language tests, the use of language tests in school admissions, questions of test validity, the emergence of standardized tests, the influence of societal values on testing practices, the use of computers and technology in language testing, and the success or failure of policy implementation. Also reviewed are the following new trends of language testing and assessment in Thailand: human resources development and professional certification, the integration of IT and English teaching and testing, quality assurance and English assessment, learner autonomy and self-assessment, and advanced technology and innovations in language assessment.

<p>This research intends to bring insights into learner autonomy in a Malagasy EFL setting. Despite being a topic of research in language education for about four decades, learner autonomy is still almost unknown in countries like Madagascar. Most empirical studies on learner autonomy have taken place in either ESL settings in Western countries or EFL settings in some Asian countries. Very little research has been conducted in African developing countries. In order to foster learner autonomy in a Malagasy setting, the research encompassed two main phases. Phase one focused on exploring the existing conditions for learner autonomy in a Malagasy rural school; while phase two aimed to promote one dimension of learner autonomy with student teachers through a “reflective learning” course. Phase one examined the affordances of learner autonomy in a Malagasy rural school. It investigated three dimensions of learner autonomy, namely self-initiation, self-regulation, and independence, via class observations and interviews with four EFL teachers. The data revealed some elements of autonomy. Self-initiation was fostered through encouragement and opportunities to learn outside class, while independence (from teachers) was mainly promoted through peer collaboration. Though the presence of the elements was not consistent, the fact that they were promoted at all implies possibilities to further exploit them in such a setting. Self-regulation - composed of planning, monitoring, and self-evaluation - was not promoted probably due to the teachers’ unawareness of its importance, and their lack of experience with self-regulation as former learners. The aim of phase two was to promote self-regulation at a Teacher Training College among a group of 22 first-year EFL student teachers as participants. A nine-week “reflective learning” course was designed to achieve three main objectives: (1) to help the student teachers improve their self-regulation skills via reflective journal writing, in order (2) to help them improve their writing proficiency. In addition, experiencing the benefits and the challenges of reflective learning would lead them (3) to be aware of the significance of self-regulation on their own writing and/or learning in general, and on their future teaching. To reach these objectives, the student teachers were given writing tasks and reflection prompts to answer before, during, and after the writing tasks. Each of the writing task was a 200-word argumentative essay, and was repeated twice or three times in order to facilitate the student teachers’ self-evaluation. The pre-task prompts intended to help them plan their writing (including goal setting), the during-task prompts helped them monitor, and the post-task prompts helped them self-evaluate. A session of group discussion was held each week to allow peer collaboration. The writing tasks, the journal reflections on the tasks, on the group discussions, along with journal reflections on the course were included in portfolios. The findings of phase two revealed that reflective learning was conducive to the development of the student teachers’ self-regulation of writing. They became aware of their difficulties, which they turned into goals. This awareness enabled them to develop strategic behaviour and a sense of responsibility towards their learning in general. They also realised their capability to improve with little help from teachers, which triggered positive affect. Moreover, they generally improved their writing performances mainly thanks to the sense of responsibility, the positive affect, and the habit of paying attention to details, which they had also developed throughout the course. Furthermore, reflective learning influenced their perspectives on teaching. The development of self-regulation and that of the improvement of writing varied from one student to another. In order to have a more in-depth analysis of such development (or lack of development), two case studies were used to illustrate the variations and the possible reasons behind such variations. The research leads to a few teaching implications. Firstly, learner autonomy has its place in developing countries like Madagascar. Secondly, the development of learner autonomy should be included in teacher training so that teachers know and value its benefits and challenges, based on their own learning experience. Thirdly, not every student would reach the same level of autonomy in a given time. Weaker students may need more guidance in terms of strategies than other students.</p>