The Relationship between Women's Education with Women's Labor Participation and National Income: A Research on G20 Countries.

Sustainable economic growth at national and global level depends on the significant participation of women in the labor force. Because women compose half of the world population in terms of human capital and labor. Despite the developments in recent years, there is still gender inequality in labor markets around the world and labor force participation rate of women is lower than men. There are many factors affecting the participation of women in the labor force in all developed and developing countries. The effect levels of these factors on the participation rate differ depending on the development levels of the countries. In this context, the role of women's education and labor force participation on development is an important issue especially for all developing country. Therefore, the aim of the study is to examine the relationship between women's labor force participation rates and economic growth in transition economies. For this purpose, the generalized method of moments, which is a dynamic panel data analysis technique, is applied in the study using data between 1995-2019. Analysis findings reveal that there is a U-shaped relationship between women's labor force participation rate and economic growth in transition economies competible with the literature. As a result, reducing gender inequality and increasing women's labor force participation rates positively affect economic growth, income inequality and social welfare, so it is great importance that policy practitioners create a comprehensive women's employment policy and ensure that women play an active role in the labor force.

UN and World Bank data on developing countries were used to examine variations across countries in child mortality and fertility patterns and to determine the impact of literacy and schooling, labor force participation of women, contraceptive use, availability of health services, and households headed by women on fertility rates and child mortality. The Schultz-Becker theoretical framework formed the basis of the analysis with ordinary least squares methods and extreme bounds analysis (EBA) used to test for robustness. The findings were that fertility was decreased due to women's human capital, women's labor force participation, and married women's use of contraception. The most powerful effect on fertility was contraceptive use, followed by women's labor force participation. Without contraceptive use in the model, women's literacy and school enrollments were negative and statistically significant. 66-81% of the variation in fertility rates was explained. EBA results showed the main variables as stable and consistent and, consequently, robust. Child mortality was strongly affected by women's schooling and labor force participation. Child mortality was negatively affected by availability of trained health services personnel at birth. Households headed by women had higher child mortality, but the association was weak. The main variables explained 84-89% of the variation in child mortality, and EBA results confirmed robustness. Socioeconomic improvement without attention to the health and educational needs of women would be counterproductive. Unfortunately, the structural adjustment program has resulted in the decline in health and educational services in developing countries, which severely affects low income women and households headed by women.

The asymmetric role of crime in women's and men's labour force participation: Evidence from India

Housing cost and married women's labor force participation in 1980

We address several key hypotheses about the effects of socioeconomic development on women's labour force participation during the transition from agriculture to industrialism. To this end, we explore differences in women's labour force participation in Brazil by education, marital status, age, and urban or rural residence. We also show how socioeconomic development affects the overall level of women's participation and the differentials by education, etc. Our data are drawn from a large 1973 PNAD (Pequisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicilos) survey conducted by the Brazilian census bureau. Socioeconomic development in different parts of Brazil ranges from pre-industrial agriculture to heavy industry. Using logistic regression, we show that the general level of women's labour force participation does not change with the level of development. Highly educated women are much more likely than the less educated to be in the labour force (net of other influences); this difference is substantially greater than in post-industrial societies. Somewhat surprisingly, the influence of education is the same across the range of development levels in Brazil. Single women are more likely to be in the labour force than married women, and the difference grows during development. Age has a curvilinear relationship to labour force participation, and the old are much less likely to participate in more developed places. Rural women are slightly more likely to be in the labour force at all levels of development.

Some previous studies of the relationship between women's labor force participation and household income inequality indicate that the promotion of the former has an equalizing effect on the latter; other studies insist that the promotion of women's labor force participation has a widening effect on household income inequality by way of the tendency toward assortative marriage. Hence, the relationship between women's labor force participation and household income inequality is unclear in the literature. This study aims to clarify the mechanism through which the interaction between household income and marriage produces social inequality by using mathematical and simulation-based approaches. The presented findings suggest that the promotion of women's labor force participation has a temporary widening effect on household income inequality, but an attenuating effect in the long run. They also state that assortative marriage itself has no widening effect on household income inequality, but rather an accelerating effect on widening inequality. Finally, by applying the model of that mechanism to Japan, I examine changes in household income inequality in that country.

ABSTRACTModest increases in women's labor force participation rates could boost world GDP by at least six trillion dollars; full equality for women could increase world GDP by $28 trillion. One factor limiting women's labor force participation may be religion. We test the effect of religion on women's labor force participation rates in Indonesia. Using data from Indonesia's 2010 Census, we run a logit model for married rural women, married urban women, single rural women, and single urban women. We find that holding other factors equal, married Hindu women in urban areas are as much as 31 percentage points more likely to work than married Muslim urban women, while married Confucian women in rural areas are as much as 31 percentage points less likely to work than married Muslim rural women. These and other results are robust across different specifications and are both economically and statistically significant.

Militarization, women's labor force participation, and gender inequality: Evidence from global data

Background: In the last few decades, there has been a significant increase in women's participation in gainful employment in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). This scooping review has primarily aimed at assessing the key determinants and effects of women's involvement in the labor force in SSA.
 Methods: The authors did the review based on 19 articles selected from PubMed and goggle search. The selection considered only those published in the last 15 years, conducted based on large sample from Sub-Saharan African countries, and those exclusively related to women’s Labor Force Participation (LFP). More than 80% of the reviewed studies (16 of the 19) employed a cross-sectional study design with quantitative approaches.
 Results: The review witnessed that women's labor force participation in SSA is determined by various individual, household, and community characteristics. Women with lower fertility, living in poor economic condition (low wealth quantiles), and those with above primary education were more likely to participate in gainful employment. Other demographic factors explaining why some women participate in the labor force more often than others include women's age, marital status, number of under-five children, household size, and headship. Among the community variables, living in areas with better infrastructure (transport and communication) increased the likelihood of women’s participation in gainful employment. Nearly all studies showed significant positive impacts of women's labor force participation on several domains of women's life and household well-being, such as on women's nutrition, childcare, and health service utilization.
 Conclusion: The review implies that despite concerns about some adverse impacts of women's participation in gainful employment (such as on childcare), most of the studies indicated positive effects of LFP on women's and children's health, nutrition, and overall household well-being in SSA.

We estimate the effect of household appliance ownership on the labor force participation rate of married women using micro-level data from the 1960 and 1970 U.S. Censuses. In order to identify the causal effect of home appliance ownership on married women's labor force participation rates, our empirical strategy exploits both time-series and cross-sectional variation in these two variables. To control for endogeneity, we instrument a married woman's ownership of an appliance by the average ownership rate for that appliance among single women living in the same U.S. state. Single women's labor force participation rates did not increase between 1960 and 1970. We find evidence in support of the hypothesis that the diffusion of household appliances contributed to the increase in married women's labor force participation rates during the 1960's.

We examine the effect of California Paid Family Leave (CPFL) on young women's (less than 42 years of age) labor force participation and unemployment. CPFL enables workers to take at most six weeks of paid leave over a 12 month period in order to bond with new born or adopted children, or to care for sick family members or ailing parents. The policy benefits women, especially young women, since they are more prone to take such a leave. However, the effect of the policy on labor market outcomes is less clear. We apply difference-in-difference techniques to identify the effects of the CPFL legislation on young women's labor force participation and unemployment.We find that the labor force participation rate, the unemployment rate, and the duration of unemployment among young women rose in California compared to states that did not adopt paid family leave. The latter two findings regarding higher young women's unemployment and unemployment duration are unanticipated effects of the CPFL program. We utilize a unique placebo test to validate the robustness of these results.

This study aims to determine the effect of women's education and women's labor force participation rate on poverty alleviation in East Java. This research method uses quantitative methods analyzed using panel data regression analysis. Poverty in East Java is still above the national average from 2010 to 2022. In 2023, East Java's poverty rate was the highest after Yogyakarta Province. Efforts are needed to improve the quality of human resources through education. Individuals who have good formal education tend to have better access to stable jobs and better wages, which can help them avoid falling into poverty. The findings of this Random Effect Model estimation study show that partially women's education has a significant negative effect on poverty alleviation and women's labor force participation rate (TPAK) has a significant positive effect on poverty alleviation in East Java. Simultaneously, female education and female labor force participation rate have a significant effect on poverty alleviation in East Java.

Indonesia has an almost balanced population of women and men. As a developing country with a large population, it is vulnerable to problems in the large supply of labor. Women are often victims of gender inequality that restricts them from contributing to development and enjoying development. This can be seen in the participation rate of the female labor force in Indonesia which has stagnated at 50%. The purpose of this study is to analyze the factors that influence the female labor force participation rate in Indonesia in 2017-2023. The data used in this study was sourced from the Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesia. The analysis model used in this study is panel data regression with Fixed Effect Model (FEM). Based on the results of the analysis, it is known that women accessing the internet have a significant negative effect on the growth of women's labor force participation rates, the average length of girls' schooling and the provincial minimum wage have a significant positive effect on women's labor force participation rates. Then foreign investment has a negative effect insignificant and domestic investment has a positive effect insignificant.

This article documents trends in the total and gender specific labor force of 23 countries over the 40 years after 1950. There are several common features of this period across countries as well as some significant differences. For example, in almost all countries there is an increase in women's labor force participation rate and either no change or a slight decrease in men's labor force participation rate. While the changes in female labor force participation rate are due to increases in 25-54 year olds, for men it is the behavior of the young (10-24) and the older (55 ) age groups that are responsible for the overall change. Countries show differences with respect to timing and the magnitude of the changes in the labor force participation of men and women. The results also point out the potential of the increase in the share of services in an economy for impacting female labor force participation patterns.

A strong and negative Correlation between married women's labor force participation and fertility has been witnessed in Japan in past decades.Relative to empirical studies of a traditional single equation on female labor supply, there exist few econometric studies dealing explicitly with a possible interdependency between married women's labor supply and fertility behaviors in urban Japan.Using the recently published 1980 Population Census of Japan, we have estimated a simultaneous_equation model of married women's labor force participation and fertility in urban Japan.Our model shows very satisfactory results to explain the negative correlation between those variables based on a method of 2SLS.Estimated labor supply elasticities for married women with respect to their fertility rates, wife's labor earnings, and male labor earnings are -0.67,0.23, and -1.76 at the sample means, respectively.On the other hand, estimated elasticities of fertility with respect to married women's labor force participation and family income are -0.31 and 0.23, respectively.We find some of these elasticities for Japanese married women very comparable to those of married women in the United States.