The Relationship Between Growth Language Mindsets and L2 Achievement

L2 acquisition is frequently contrasted with L1 acquisition on the basis of the relative difficulty of the former and its variability across learners. The variability in L2 is attributed to some combination of contextual factors, for example, classroom vs. immersion learning, additive vs. subtractive evaluation of L2, the typological distance between L1 and L2, and/or L2 aptitude. Historically, individual differences (IDs) in L1 ability have seldom been considered an explanatory factor in L2 learning. Instead, there has been an assumption that most individuals achieve full linguistic competence in L1. However, this view of L1 development is incorrect. Individual differences in L1 skills have been found to be large and stable across development. Since 1991, the Linguistic Coding Differences Hypothesis (LCDH) has maintained that the primary causal factors in L2 achievement are linguistic and posited a connection between IDs in L1 skills and IDs in L2 aptitude and L2 achievement. Studies over 30 years with U.S. L2 learners have consistently revealed strong relationships between IDs in L1 ability and L2 achievement. Further, there are long-term relationships between L1 ability and L2 aptitude/L2 achievement many years later. In this chapter, the author reviews the extensive evidence showing that IDs in L2 are moderated by IDs in L1 and that L1 and L2 have a common underlying foundation.

This correlational study examined the relationship among some English teachers’ characteristics and their students’ foreign language learning. Eighty-two Iranian high school teachers who taught English completed a battery of questionnaires. The scores of the teachers’ students on their final exam were collected as indicators of their English achievement. The results revealed that there was a positive relationship between the teachers’ self-efficacy, classroom management orientations, personal accomplishments (a subscale of burnout), and students’ L2 performance. However, the correlations between emotional exhaustion and depersonalization (two subcomponents of burnout) and students’ English learning were negative. Furthermore, the findings indicated that the teachers’ self-efficacy was the strongest predictor of learners’ English learning. These findings highlight the importance of such teachers’ characteristics for their learners’ L2 learning.

Second language (L2) educators have proposed a unique anxiety for general L2 learning and an anxiety specific to L2 reading. Since the early 1990s, the L2 anxiety concept has been challenged on theoretical and empirical grounds. In this investigation, U.S. high school L2 learners were administered the Foreign Language Reading Anxiety Scale (FLRAS) and measures of first language (L1) skills, L1 phonological memory and working memory, L1 print exposure, L1 reading attitudes, L1 metacognitive ability, L2 aptitude, and L2 achievement, then were followed through 2 to 3 years of Spanish. Results showed that the FLRAS explained significant unique variance in most L1 skills and L2 aptitude. Hierarchical regressions showed that the FLRAS explained growth in L2 achievement from first‐ to second‐ to third‐year Spanish. Findings suggest that the FLRAS is likely to measure individual differences in or self‐perceptions of students’ language learning skills rather than a specific anxiety for L2 learning. Implications for the teaching of L2s to U.S. students are discussed.

The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between three teacher-related variables, namely, teaching efficacy, institutional identity and motivational strategy use, with students’ L2 achievement. The study further intended to pinpoint gender differences in each of the aforementioned teacher-related variables. To this end, 120 (60 male and 60 female) EFL teachers took part in the study by completing Teacher Efficacy Scale (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001), Institutional Identity Scale developed by Azimi (2012), and Motivational Strategy Use Scale developed by Cheng and Dornyei (2007). Furthermore, the final class outcomes of the teachers’ students (n=2045) were collected. The participants were EFL learners and their teachers. The results of Pearson Correlations indicated that there existed significant and positive relationship between the three aforementioned teacher-related variables of EFL teachers and their students’ L2 achievement. The results revealed that EFL teachers’ efficacy, institutional identity and motivational strategy use had a significant and positive relationship with their students’ L2 achievement. A Significant difference was found between the male and female EFL teachers. Also, Motivational strategy use was the strongest predictor of Iranian EFL students’ L2 achievement. Based on the findings of the study, a number of pedagogical implications could be recommended. The findings will provide rational support for proposing that EFL teachers should invest in improving their knowledge of teaching efficacy, institutional identity and motivational strategy use.

Despite the widespread use and effectiveness of the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) composite score in predicting individual differences in L2 achievement and proficiency, there has been little examination of MLAT subtests, although they have potential for illuminating components of L2 aptitude and the mechanism of prediction. Here we use regression commonality analysis to decompose the predictive variance from the MLAT into unique components for each subtest alone and for each possible combination of subtests (duos, trios, etc.) that may have shared variance. The results, from a longitudinal study of 307 U.S. secondary students during 2 years of Spanish learning, provide strong evidence for the role of literacy-related skills in all subtests and in predicting all L2 outcomes. These and other results support a view of L1 literacy and language skills leading to metalinguistic development, which in turn leads to stronger L2 aptitude and achievement.

Defined as a combination of perseverance and passion for long‐term goals, grit has been hypothesized to be as important as talent in determining the success of students, adding incremental predictive validity for achievement criteria above and beyond natural or inherent ability. In this study, we tested this hypothesis by comparing the effects of second language (L2) aptitude and L2 grit on L2 achievement. We also explored how age, L2 learning experience, and gender of the students influenced their L2 aptitude and L2 grit levels. The findings showed that L2 aptitude and L2 grit had similar, positive effects in predicting language achievement measures. Moreover, some aspects of the students’ language aptitude and L2 grit were susceptible to change as they aged and gained more L2 learning experiences, but their gender played no reliable part in this regard.

Despite the longstanding recognition of substantial individual differences (IDs) in L2 attainment, SLA/L2 researchers have a history of focusing primarily on universal characteristics and processes of language development. Theoretical work has failed to note and explore the nature and role of the strong evidence for large and stable IDs in early L1 attainment in all components of language development. Extensive research has also shown that there are strong relationships among IDs in L1 achievement, L2 aptitude, and L2 achievement outcomes. More recent investigations have found that prediction from the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT), the strongest single predictor of L2 achievement, may be due largely to MLAT’s assessment of L1 abilities, reinforcing the position that IDs in L2 achievement are strongly related to and constrained by L1 achievement. Despite the evidence that students’ L2 achievement is closely related to their L1 achievement developed prior to L2 exposure, SLA/L2 researchers have largely failed to consider L1 skills as a factor that explains IDs in L2 achievement. Several hypotheses are proposed to explain why SLA/L2 researchers consider IDs in L1 attainment to be unimportant for L2 achievement.

<bold>ABSTRACT</bold> Purpose The current study examined whether self-efficacy could mediate and moderate the relationship between grit (i.e. perseverance of effort) and second/foreign (L2) achievement. Methodology Participants involved 535 year-two students (M age = 16.15, SD = .63, females = 59%) from a senior middle school in mainland China. Students’ grit, self-efficacy, and L2 (English) achievement were measured. Multilevel structural equation modeling with latent interaction was used to explore the relationships among these three variables. Findings The results showed that grit positively predicted self-efficacy, which positively predicted L2 achievement. Meanwhile, the interaction produced a nonsignificant relation to L2 achievement. We concluded that self-efficacy mediated but did not moderate the relationship between grit and L2 achievement. Originality Grit and self-efficacy have been recognized as two essential predictors of L2 learning. This study is an empirical attempt to address the underexplored nature of the interplay between grit and self-efficacy in determining L2 achievement.

BackgroundIn recent years, the role of grit in second language (L2) acquisition has begun to attract scholarly interest, but the results of previous studies have been inconsistent. Moreover, with the rapid flowering of positive psychology, the well-being of L2 students and its effect on L2 learning have also come under scrutiny, but existing research has been fragmentary, especially lacking in studies on the effect of well-being on L2 achievement.MethodBased on a questionnaire survey among 343 English major freshmen in a Chinese university, this study explored the predictive effect of “perseverance of effort” (PE) and “consistency of interest”(CI) ‒ the two dimensions of grit ‒ on the learners’ L2 achievement, and the possible mediating roles of the five elements of well-being (i.e., positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning and accomplishment) in the relationship between the two dimensions of grit and L2 achievement.ResultsThe findings revealed that PE had no predictive effect on learners’ L2 achievement while CI had significant and positive predictive effect on the latter, and that the mediating effect of well-being was statistically non-significant.ConclusionThe results indicated that L2 students’ consistent interest in and enthusiasm toward L2 learning should be cultivated, and that an L2-specific well-being scale should be developed in order to better reveal the relationships between grit, well-being and L2 achievement.

This study was conducted to find the relationship between learners’ L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS), consisting of Ideal L2 Self, ought-to L2 Self, and L2 Learning Experience and their achievement. The participants of this quantitative study were 56 Indonesian undergraduate students who were taking English for Biotechnology class, an English for Academic Purpose (EAP) class. This study was conducted based on several rationales. Despite many researchers’ support on L2MSS’ strength in predicting L2 learning, they have not conclusively established the extent to which learners’ motivation measured with their L2MSS influences their achievements and to date, there have only been few studies investigating the relationships between L2MSS and actual learning achievements. Besides, despite L2MSS’ growing popularity in the field of motivational research, motivational studies using L2MSS in the Indonesian university context are generally still very rare. Hence, this study can serve to pave a way for further motivational studies using L2MSS in the context. The study found that in general learners had high a level of motivation as measured with L2MSS questionnaires. The study further found several results which were rather surprising. First, Ideal L2 Self and L2 Learning Experience did not have significant relationships with achievement. Even ought-to L2 Self and achievement correlated negatively. It was also found that, despite many experts’ support on L2MSS’s strength in predicting L2 learning, the participants’ L2MSS could not be a strong predictor of their achievement. Based on the results, discussions on possible contributing factors were presented along with the implications of this study results in the field of motivational studies. Based on the possible limitations of the study, furthermore, some directions for future studies are also presented.

A unique anxiety for foreign language (L2) learning has been hypothesized to explain students’ problems with language learning. However, L2 anxiety instruments have been challenged on the grounds that they reflect students’ language learning ability and/or perceptions of their language learning skills. In this study, 266 U.S. high school students were administered measures of first language (L1) skills, L2 aptitude, and L2 achievement and followed through 2–3 years of Spanish courses. In 1st‐year Spanish, they were administered the Foreign Language Reading Anxiety Scale (FLRAS), divided into 3 anxiety groups, and compared on the L1 and L2 measures. Findings showed that the Low Anxiety group scored significantly higher than the High Anxiety group on all L1 and L2 measures, and significantly higher than the Average Anxiety group on most L1 and L2 measures at the end of 1st‐ and 2nd‐year Spanish. Students who completed 3rd‐year Spanish displayed either low or average anxiety on the FLRAS. Results revealed negative correlations between the FLRAS and all L1 and L2 measures. Correlations between the FLRAS and the L2 achievement measures increased over time. Findings show that the FLRAS is unlikely to be measuring anxiety for language learning but more likely to be a proxy for students’ levels of L1 skill, L2 aptitude, and L2 achievement.

Although researchers have found strong relationships between first language (L1) skills and second language (L2) anxiety, less is known about how L1 skills in primary school impact L2 anxiety years after L1 has been acquired. Previous research lacked evidence for the mediating role of L2 aptitude and L2 achievement in the relationship. This study applies structural equation modelling to examine pathways by which L1 skills are associated with L2 anxiety via the mediators. Sixty-five students were administered L1 skill measures from 1st–5th grades, then followed over 10 years when completing L2 courses in high school. We examined the model across six different ages and found the effect of L1 skills on L2 anxiety was indirect through L2 aptitude and L2 achievement, indicating the impact is better understood through the mediators. The effect of L2 achievement on L2 anxiety is direct, and large in magnitude. Results remained stable across different ages and invariant across gender.

This paper examines evidence for relationships among individual differences (IDs) in L1 achievement, L2 aptitude, and L2 achievement. It begins by providing an overview of my academic journey from L1 educator to L2 researcher and explains the development of the Linguistic Coding Differences Hypothesis (LCDH). Next, I review Peter Skehan’s influential research on language aptitude and L1-L2 relationships and summarizes research showing that IDs in L1 achievement (and L1 ability) are universal, can be identified early, and are stable over time. Then, I review research on L1-L2 relationships and IDs in L2 learning, focusing on the longitudinal studies and reporting two new studies that examine the relationship between L1 achievement and L2 aptitude on the MLAT. Overall, I argue that the development of L1 literacy leads to growth in metalinguistic awareness, which enhances L1 literacy skills, and that L1 literacy and metalinguistic awareness provide the foundation for L2 aptitude, the ability to use and understand “decontextualized” material. I conclude the paper by proposing an answer to the title.

The study aimed to examine the interrelationships between growth mindset, L2 aptitude, L2 grit, and L2 achievement, while also exploring the moderating role of gender in these interactions. A sample of 236 English-major students participated in the study by completing a language aptitude test and a questionnaire. The results of path analyses indicated that both aptitude and L2 grit similarly and positively predicted L2 achievement. The growth mindset had no direct effect on L2 achievement, whereas its indirect effects reached statistical significance. Moreover, growth mindset and L2 grit were found to be unrelated to L2 aptitude. Although female and male students did not differ significantly in their growth mindset, L2 aptitude, L2 grit, and L2 achievement scores, Multi-Group Path Analyses unveiled subtle gender differences.

Second language (L2) anxiety has been proposed to play a causal role in L2 achievement. However, most studies have failed to acknowledge confounding variables that may be relevant to the study of anxiety and L2 achievement or to investigate the causal effect of L2 anxiety using longitudinal data. For these reasons, we investigated the effect of L1 reading achievement, L2 aptitude, and L2 anxiety as covariates on the growth of L2 reading achievement across three time points. We used the latent growth curve model (LGCM) to estimate the growth trajectory of US secondary school students’ L2 reading growth in Spanish (N = 307) over three school years. The findings showed that students’ L1 reading achievement and L2 aptitude strongly and significantly predicted L2 reading achievement growth. However, L2 anxiety did not predict L2 reading achievement growth. Findings suggest that growth in L2 reading achievement depends on the language-related skills used for L1 reading and the language skills that comprise L2 aptitude, but not on anxiety. Similar to past cross-sectional studies, L2 anxiety related only to initial levels of L2 reading achievement, suggesting that anxiety reflects students’ initial experience of L2 reading but not their L2 achievement.