“The Red Plague Rid You For Learning Me Your Language!” – Standard and Non-Standard Use in English and in Portuguese

Introduction: The Gender and Queer Politics of Translation: New Approaches

User-generated text in social media communication (SMC) is mainly characterized by non-standard form. It may contain code switching (CS) text, a widespread phenomenon in SMC, in addition to noisy elements used, especially in written conversations (use of abbreviations, symbols, emoticons) or misspelled words. All of these factors constitute a wall in front of text mining applications. Common text mining tools are dedicated to standard use of standard languages but cannot deal with other forms, especially written text in social media. To overcome these problems, in this work we present our solution for the normalization of non-standard use of standard and non-standard languages (dialects) in SMC text with the use of existent resources and tools. The main processing in our solution consists of CS normalization from multiple to one language by the use of a machine translation--like approach. This processing relies on a linguistic approach of CS, which aims at identifying automatically the translation source and target languages (without human intervention). The remaining processing operations concern the normalization of SMC special expressions and spelling correction of out-of-vocabulary words. To preserve the coded-switched sentence meaning across translation, we adopt a knowledge-based approach for word sense translation disambiguation reinforced with a multi-lingual vertical context. All of these processes are embedded in what we refer to as the machine normalization system. Our solution can be used as a front-end of text mining processing, enabling the analysis of SMC noisy text. The conducted experiments show that our system performs better than considered baselines.

This research investigates whether ‘canonity and authorial weight’ affect the translation product of Charles dickens’ Oliver Twist, and whether the source text (English) aesthetic features are maintained in the target text (Arabic). It aims to link aesthetic features with the figurative elements that are used in the translation which may express the role the authorial weight plays in the translation process. The importance of preserving the author's intended meaning of the source text (SL) in the target language is crucial. Consequently, this research uses a comparative qualitative research analysis that compares two randomly Arabic translations (TT1 and TT2) with the source text (ST) according to canonity and authorial weight features. The features of figurative language are located in the source text (ST) then compared to their counterparts in the target text (TTs). The random sample discussed thoroughly of whether it is equivalents to ST. This study is based on Nida's (1975 & 1964) dynamic or formal equivalence backgrounds. It concludes that figurative elements in translation play a major role in the fluency of the translator taking into the translators' authorial weight in the target language. It also concludes that the translation is affected by the canonity and aesthetic features used.

For novelists, dialects can help them to convey a particular message. For translators, however, dialects in the novel they translate can cause problems. It is due to the fact that dialects are linguistically and culturally bounded. This paper tries to highlight the Indonesian translation of African American English (AAE) dialect used by black characters in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain. The sources of data of the paper are the English version of the novel and the Indonesian translation published by Bentang Pustaka. The analysis of the features of AAE dialect in the source text (ST) shows that among all of the sentences uttered by the black characters, almost all of them (about 95%) contain the features of AAE, in forms of sintax, phonology and vocabulary. The large number of data which show the real characteristics of AAE indicates that the ST writer intended to bring the AAE for a real communication as naturally as possible. Interestingly, the most frequently seen AAE dialect features in the English novel are phonological ones. Considering that it is a written novel, the large number of phonological dialect features in the ST makes the distinct way of speaking of the black characters very clear for ST readers. The Indonesian version, however, doesn’t show particular dialect features. It contains various features of standard Indonesian language. It means that the translator employs naturalization technique for translating AAE dialect. Consequently the distinct speech style of the black characters in the ST cannot be clearly seen in the translation. The information about the social background of the black characters that are from black and the low society cannot be traced from the language used in the TT. Moreover, a note about the dialect used by the ST author is not provided in the translation. Consequently, the readers of the TT will potentially get different reading experience from those of the readers of the ST and cannot appreciate the effort to the ST writer to provide a dialect as a tool of characterization. Keywords: dialect, African American English, black characters, dialect features, translation technique

Functionalism in translation studies

Translation issues have long been in the field of view of translators and philologists-researchers. The focus was on the definition of the translation process in view of its psychological and lexical-semantic features and its perception as a certain creative action. The translation process is always functionally and thematically defined and controlled. Its main purpose is to provide the necessary information and establish communication between people of different languages and cultures. Considering translation as an interlingual communication process, we address the question of what language operations should be performed to ensure the integration of source and target texts and at the same time eliminate their interlinguistic structural differences at the conceptual and stylistic levels. The dominant of any translation is its goal (skopos), because differences in the definition of translation goals cause, in turn, differences in interlingual translation strategies. The translator's understanding of the text presupposes his knowledge of the history of society, institutions, social conditions, religious beliefs, culturally and situationally determined patterns of speech activity and behavior of the "source culture", as well as knowledge of the syntax and semantics of the "source text" and their structures. Each translation creates a dynamic connection and is an intercultural transfer of the text insofar as it takes into account the culturally specific comparison of language, situation and object in question. From the standpoint of hermeneutics and from the point of view of translation, the difference of cultures means the difference between "source culture" and thus – the culture of "source language" and "target culture" and thus - the culture of "target language". The analysis focuses on the translation of the most famous poems of German classics. In J. Goethe, along with the ballad "Erlkönig" ("The Forest King"), it is his popular excerpts from the tragedy "Faust". The translation was made by famous writers B. Hrinchenko and M. Rylsky. F. Schiller's poetry is represented by his ballads "Pirnach" ("DerTaucher") and "Glove" ("DerHandschuh"). The latter was translated by the famous poet and translator M. Orest. Heine's works were translated into Ukrainian by such well-known writers as I. Franko, L. Pervomaisky and others.

The translation of theatrical works in which dialects are present is a delicate process of mediation requiring a careful valuation of formal and communicative textual aspects. For mediating between two different universes the translator must firstly choose whether to transmit the original text language variation – through the strategies available in the target language – or whether to ignore it, transferring the script into the standard target language. Accordingly, both the source oriented and the target-oriented translations are possible and produce results worthy of being examined, from the perspective of a wide interdisciplinary area including linguistic and cultural studies. Arabic versions of Italian theatrical and narrative works, originally characterized by the use of dialects, show a variety of solutions to the problems arising while translating, which are interesting for reflecting on the general decision-making process of translation and on the language choices adopted in a given target culture. My contribution aims to present the outcomes of a comparison between the original text of Filumena Marturano (1946), one of the comedies written by the Italian dramatist Eduardo De Filippo, and both the standard Arabic translation (2006) and the Egyptian vernacular script of its stage representation (1998). In the source text there are many Neapolitan vernacular expressions, as dialect is a major feature in typifying characters and environment, but the translations resort to a general neutralization of the foreign culture, through standardization or homogenization with the Egyptian culture.

Toward Harmonization of the Nutrition Care Process Terminology and the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health−Dietetics: Results of a Mapping Exercise and Implications for Nutrition and Dietetics Practice and Research

An assumption of this paper is that non-standard use of language will be accompanied by non-standard features of understanding. An attempt is made to access the meaning perceptions of learners at different levels of proficiency. The paper reports on what English learners in Brunei think English modal verb forms mean. It focuses specifically on would and discusses its use in Standard British English and in Brunei English. Bruneian perceptions of the meaning of this modal are compared with its use. It is claimed that the non-standard use of would for non-assertiveness in Brunei English can partly be explained by users overfocusing on its non-factivity meaning. The issues of what the target variety may be and the appropriacy of non-standard features in this sociocultural and linguistic context are briefly discussed.

With this article, we seek to support the law of growing standardization by showing that texts translated into Belgian Dutch make more use of standard language than non-translated Belgian Dutch texts. Additionally, we want to examine whether the use of standard vs. non-standard language can be attributed to the variables text type and source language. In order to achieve that goal, we gathered a diverse set of linguistic variables and used a 10-million-word corpus that is parallel, comparable and bidirectional (the Dutch Parallel Corpus;Macken et al. 2011). The frequency counts for each of the variables are used to determine the differences in standard language use by means of profile-based correspondence analysis (Plevoets 2008). The results of our analysis show that (i) in general, there is indeed a standardizing trend among translations and (ii) text types with a lot of editorial control (fiction, non-fiction and journalistic texts) contain more standard language than the less edited text types (administrative texts and external communication) which adds support for the idea that the differences between translated and non-translated texts are text type dependent.

This paper reveals the social and cultural context by using Critical Discourse Analysis on intertextuality relationships in translations that use slang as an equivalent even though the source text, English, is not slang, and analyzes the translation with an interpretive translation approach related to the recontextualization of the present meanings. Due to the use of slang in the target language. This is a qualitative descriptive study with a case study approach. Translation at the level of intertextuality allows the existence of equivalents that reflect the collective identity of certain social groups. This equivalent has the potential to become a new, unusual and different equivalent from the equivalent that has traditionally existed so far, although it still has an element of accuracy that represents the message from the source language. Translating text in terms of intertextuality requires careful interpretation because it refers to the recontextualization of the meaning in the target language which tends to be different from the source language. Translation using slang is a form of recontextualization because it contains elements of the context of different social and cultural realities.

وام­گیری پدیده­ای است جهانی و چنانچه کنترل شده باشد، موجب غنای زبان مقصد می­شود. میان سرزمین‌های گیلان و روسیه همواره روابط زبانی گسترده­­ای وجود داشته و شاهد واژه­های فراوانی هستیم که به واسطۀ همجواری و سال­ها روابط فرهنگی، سیاسی، نظامی، تجاری و ... از زبان روسی وارد گویش گیلکی شدند، درحالی­که نشانی از آنها در زبان فارسی معیار و دیگر گویش­های ایرانی نیست. در این مقاله، با تکیه بر واژه‌نامه‌های گیلکی فهرستی از وام­واژه­های روسی تهیه و آنها را در دو دسته طبقه‌بندی کرده­ایم: وام­واژه­های روسی مشترک در فارسی و دیگر گویش­ها؛ وام­واژه­هایی که تنها وارد زبان گیلکی شدند. در مقابل هر وام­واژه معادل روسی آن را ذکر و تلفظش را آوانویسی و تغییرات معنایی، آوایی و صرفی واژه­ها را پس از ورود به زبان مقصد بررسی می­کنیم. هدف از این تحقیق معرفی و تدقیق ویژگی­های کلی روند وام­گیری در گیلکی است. با بررسی وام­واژه­ها به این نتیجه می­رسیم که وام‌گیری غالبا از نوع واژگانی است و وام­واژه­ها بیشتر در گسترۀ زندگی روزمرة اهالی گیلان به چشم می­خورند و در اغلب موارد دچار دگرگونی شدید معنایی نشدند.

Reformulation is a complex, multifaceted linguistic process occurring in different communicative interactions. If we consider interlingual subtitling (i.e., subtitling from one language to another) as a communicative process, we notice that reformulation is widely productive in this field as it is in oral interaction. This paper is based on the analysis of two Hungarian films with Italian subtitles and aims at illustrating the different functions of reformulation in subtitling. Besides conveying clearer and more explicit messages on the basis of different semantic relationships between source and target text, reformulation allows the translator to compress the source text without altering its informativity. Last but not least, the opportunity of accessing simultaneously both the original language and the (reformulated) target language may be strategic in a situation where the viewer's aim is foreign language learning.

Corpus-based cross-linguistic studies that have examined the word-formation features of source vs. target texts and non-translated vs. translated language have found that source-language interference and language-pair specific properties noticeably influence the over- and underuse of certain affixes in the target language. They have also highlighted translation-related trends such as the normalization of creative lexis, which may lead to a marked morphological decrease in target texts vis-à-vis their source texts. This article sets out to investigate another facet of the word-formation features of source and target texts, viz. genre-sensitivity, by reporting on a case study of evaluative prefixation in English and French (e.g. mini-, super-, over-). The study is based on two translation corpora (TED Talks and Europarl), representing two spoken genres (oral presentations and parliamentary debates) and two written translation modes (subtitling and translation). The results show that English evaluative prefixation fulfills different functions in the two genres investigated (attitudinal stance in debates vs. intensification in presentations). Translation data also reveal striking differences between the two corpora, with TED Talks displaying a strong preference towards prefix-by-prefix translation. However, at this stage, it is difficult to assess to what extent this is due to source text genre, translation mode or translator expertise (TED Talks are subtitled by non-professional volunteers).

This paper describes the categories of shifts in the translation of the English Holy Bible; New International Version (NIV) into Dholuo Bible Muma Maler mar Nyasaye (1976). The aim is to evaluate the relevance of the translator’s style in rendering a religious text into the target language and the overall implication on the translation theory and practice. The data is collected through document analysis and Focus Group Discussions. We analyzed forty rank shifted segments purposively from six books from the source and target text based on the Relevance Theory by Sperber & Wilson (1986). The analysis is limited to rank-shifting at the level of clauses utilized in the source language which is translated into the target language. The data is analyzed using content analysis and descriptive method. The following categories of shifts are identified; structure shifts, unit shifts, class shifts and intra-system shifts. This study offers insight to bible translators to understand that since shifts are unavoidable in translation, they should aim to produce a target text that is as accurate and precise as possible to guard against loss of meaning. To do this, translators must understand the original source text and transfer it faithfully and accurately. Moreover, bible translators must understand the context of both the source text and the target text since context plays a great role in rendering translation.