Abstract
The confrontations in the 1970s between the Nixon-Ford administration and the Democratic-controlled Congress have left a legacy of restrictions on various kinds of presidential activities that are now operating on President Carter but which did not exist to limit imperial presidents in the era from Franklin Roosevelt to Lyndon Johnson. These restrictions came as a reaction to what became recognized as a gradual erosion of congressional checks and balances against presidents since the 1930s. They represented Congress's attempt to resurrect its disused legal powers to participate in policy making especially in the areas of declaration and termination of national emergencies, war-making, foreign policy, intelligence operations, budget policy, and impoundments of appropriated funds. Our concern is with executive-congressional relations in legitimate and routine policy activities. Criminal or other impeachable offenses by presidents are neither legitimate nor (we assume) routine. Consequently, restrictions unique to Watergate or to the attempted impeachment of former President Richard Nixon fall outside the scope of this study. Nonetheless, we are left with a lengthy catalog of restrictions on the president.
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