The Racialized Nature of Nonprofit Organizations: The Current State of Research and Education

Thinking Problems

Foreword: The Evolving Role of Critical Race Theory in Educational Scholarship Gloria Ladson-Billings Introduction: All God's Children Got a Song Section I: Critical Race Theory and Education in Context 1. Toward a Critical Race Theory of Education Gloria Ladson-Billings and William F. Tate, IV 2. And We Are Still Not Saved: Critical Race Theory in Education Ten Years Later Adrienne Dixson and Celia Rousseau Section II: Critical Race Theory Constructs 3. The First Day of School: A CRT Story Celia Rousseau and Adrienne Dixson 4. Peddling Cackwards: Reflections of Plessy and Brown in the Rockford Public Schools De Jure Desegregation Efforts Thandeka Chapman 5. 'Proving Your Skin is White, You Can Have Everything': Race, Racial Identity and the Property Rights in Whiteness in the Supreme Court Case of Josephine DeCuir Jessica DeCuir-Gunby 6. Keeping it Real: Race and Education in Memphis Celia Rousseau 7. Critical Race Perspectives on Desegregation: The Forgotten Voices of Black Educators Jerome Morris 8. Parent(s): The Biggest Influences in the Education of African American Football Student-Athletes Jamel Donnor Section III: The Interdisciplinary Nature of Critical Race Theory 9. Whose Culture has Capital? A Critical Race Theory Discussion of Community Cultural Wealth Tara J. Yosso 10. Critical Race Ethnography in Education: Narrative, Inequality, and the Problem of Epistemology Garret Duncan 11. The Fire This Time: Jazz, Research and Critical Race Theory Adrienne Dixson Section IV: Critical Race Theory in US Classrooms and Internationally 12. Where the Rubber Hits the Road: CRT Goes to High School David Stovall 13. Critical Race Theory Beyond North America: Towards a Trans-Atlantic Dialogue on Racism and Antiracism in Educational Theory and Praxis David Gillborn Conclusion 14. Ethics, Engineering, and the Challenge of Racial Reform in Education William F. Tate, IV

Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) scholars have recently drawn on critical race theory (CRT) to critique and understand the propagation of Whiteness as a norm associated with native English speakers. However, the area of language studies, more broadly defined, has yet to develop the same link with CRT. To this end, this article proposes and introduces an emerging theoretical and analytical framework called LangCrit, or Critical Language and Race Theory. LangCrit puts the intersection of the subject-as-heard and the subject-as-seen at the forefront of interpretation and analysis. This article urges language studies scholars, both within the field of English language teaching and beyond, to continue to look for ways in which race, racism, and racialization intersect with issues of language, belonging, and identity.

Midwestern Studies Meets Critical Race TheoryNotes on Imagining the Heartland Jon K. Lauck Britt E. Halvorson and Joshua O. Reno, Imagining the Heartland: White Supremacy and the American Midwest. Oakland: University of California Press, 2022. 218 pp. $85.00 (hardcover), $29.95 (paper). As readers of this journal know better than anyone, the last decade has witnessed a concerted effort to promote and revive Midwestern studies. As consumers of the news in recent years know, the ideas underpinning Critical Race Theory have increasingly been debated in the public square after years of mostly percolating underground in the academy and adjacent institutions. Now comes a direct meeting of the worlds of Midwestern studies and Critical Race Theory in the form of a book published by the University of California Press, which is based in Oakland, California. It is titled Imagining the Heartland: White Supremacy and the American Midwest and was authored by two anthropologists, one at Colby College in Maine and the other at Binghamton University in New York. In a bit of stage-setting, the University of California Press announces in the book that it "publishes bold progressive books … with a focus on social justice issues—that inspire thought and action among readers worldwide."1 Imagining the Heartland affords an opportunity to consider whether Critical Theory generally, and Critical Race Theory (CRT) in particular, can help us understand the Midwest more completely and accurately or if the reverse is true. At this stage of the discussion, the CRT approach to the study of the Midwest, if this book is a reliable guide, suffers from weaknesses that will cloud our ability to see the region in its fullness and complexity. It serves as a broader warning about the problems associated with Critical Theory more generally and should be a reminder of the importance of relying on more [End Page 126] fruitful ways of examining the history of the Midwest. These include, most importantly, a dedication to collecting and examining the particular facts on the ground when interpreting the Midwestern past and placing them in historical and comparative context with limited use of theories which can predetermine conclusions. At a minimum, before it is widely adopted, CRT and its application in Midwestern studies should be the subject of a robust discussion which can begin in this journal. This discussion will continue in future issues. It should be explained up front that Imagining the Heartland does not rely on original research nor the kind of ethnographic study once-common to anthropology. The book relies on secondary publications, from academic studies to media reports to aspects of popular culture, and analyzes them through the lens of Critical Theory and seeks to explain and critique how other writers and artists have imagined or talked about the Midwest. Critical Theory is not the same as thinking critically about evidence when interpreting the past, an exercise we should all embrace.2 Critical Theory, for the uninitiated, was primarily developed by the Marxists who organized the Frankfurt School of social analysis in Germany in the early twentieth-century and who later, to escape the Nazis, moved its operations to the United States.3 During the last third of the twentieth century, Critical Theory in its various forms became highly influential in humanities and social science departments at American universities. From the general debates and ideas within Critical Theory emerged the more focused CRT, which was made prominent by Derrick Bell at Harvard Law School, in addition to other law professors. Bell and his allies promoted activism and, for them, CRT recognized that "revolutionizing a culture begins with a radical assessment of it" and predicted that "scholarly resistance will lay the groundwork for wide-scale resistance."4 A deep background in the adoption and development of Critical Theory in the academy and an understanding of these goals are helpful when reading this book because that is the source of its ideas and language. This grounding in Critical Theory is important to understand when delving into Imagining the Heartland because the book is quite distinct from some of the research that takes place in Midwestern studies. A good deal of the work in Midwestern history is grounded in studying...

While critical race theory is a framework employed by activists and scholars within and outside the confines of education, there are limited resources for leadership practitioners that provide insight into critical race theory and the possibilities of implementing a critical race praxis approach to leadership. With a continued top-down approach to educational policy and practice, it is imperative that higher education leaders understand how critical race theory and praxis can assist them in utilizing their agency and roles as leaders to identify and challenge institutional and systemic racism and other forms/manifestations of oppression (Stovall, 2004). In the tradition of critical race theory, we are charged with the task of operationalizing theory into practice in the struggle for, and commitment to, social justice. Though higher education leaders and leadership programs are often absent in this process, given their influence and power, higher education leaders need to be engaged in this endeavor.The objective of this edited volume is to draw upon critical race counter-stories and praxis for the purpose of providing higher education leaders-in-training and practicing higher education leaders with tangible narratives that demonstrate how racism and its intersectionality with other forms of oppression manifest within higher education. An additional aim of this book is to provide leaders with a working knowledge of the central tenets of critical race theory and the tools that are required in recognizing how they might be complicit in the reproduction of institutional and systemic racism and other forms of oppression. More precisely, this edited volume intends to draw upon and center the lived experiences and voices of contributors that have experienced racism in higher education. Through the use of critical race methodology and counter-storytelling (Solórzano & Yosso, 2002), contributors will share and interrogate their experiences while offering current and future higher education leaders insight in recognizing how racism functions within their respective institutions, and how they can address it. The intended goal of this edited volume is to translate critical race theory into practice while emphasizing the need for higher education leaders to develop a critical race praxis and anti-racist approach to leadership.

Critical race scholars have engaged in narrative research as a methodological approach for the last 20 years (Duncan, 2005; Parker & Lynn, 2002; Solorzano & Yosso, 2002; Solorzano & Yosso, 2001; Parker, 1998; Solorzano, 1998; Chang, 1993). However, there is no singular work that specifically addresses narrative research in education with intersectionality, a central tenet of Critical Race Theory (CRT). In this chapter we focus on the ways in which the centrality of intersectionality can prove to be important for critical race scholarship that utilizes narrative research as a methodological approach. We begin with an overview of narrative research, addressing its historical development, its definitions and types (including counterstory), and narrative research in education. A discussion of CRT, centering intersectionality, will follow. We conclude with talking points to address the usefulness of including a CRT perspective that centers intersectionality in narrative research for education.

Scholarship on illegal entry and drug courier prosecutions fails to apply Critical Race Theory (CRT). Disregard of how these pro-secutions contribute to racial stratification in and outside American prisons or how drug couriers experience intersectionality ignores sociological and cultural processes. Criminal justice professionals have racialized the system through implicit biases, but a CRT approach to criminal defense can ameliorate this problem. As such, scholars cannot refuse to take notice of CRT. Jennifer Chacon and Ingrid Eagley have written on illegal entry, describing the convergence of immigration and criminal law. Mona Lynch and Caleb Mason have conducted studies on drug couriers, focusing on the selection of cases for prosecution and the market for couriers along the United States-Mexico border. These scholars failed to consider how post-colonialism or historical oppression (both CRT tools) influence legal processes. Their analyses also lack practical implications for defense lawyers. This Article uses CRT to unpack the historical and contemporary reality of these prosecutions. With this new framework, it describes strategies for the defense lawyer with the aim of mitigating implicit bias, the main source of racial disparity in today’s federal criminal courts. In so doing, it is the first CRT investigation of two types of border crimes. It is also the first to describe a race-conscious criminal defense practice within the context of CRT.

Since former President Trump’s 2020 Executive Order banning critical race theory, the scholarship has been at the center of an international moral panic. Right-wing American, British, and French commentators invented a conspiracy theory version of critical race scholarship (Marxism! Black supremacy!). Once constructed, conspiracists blamed critical race theory for several alleged social ills, including making white kids uncomfortable and destroying nationalist sentiment. Although the acute stage of this moral panic may be receding, critical race theory’s reputation as a body of scholarship aimed at diagnosing and curing racial inequality is tarnished. Scholars concerned about racial inequality—for intellectual and ethical reasons—should be worried, as it will likely take time to reverse the damage. Answering objections from academic and lay opponents of critical race theory, Ali Meghji’s The Racialized Social System: Critical Race Theory as Social Theory shows what recovering from this moral panic will look like. Contra academic detractors who claim that critical race theory does not provide a coherent analytical framework, Meghji contextualizes the development of critical race theory in legal studies in relation to the broader set of critical theories of race and racism that were bubbling up in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The theoretical imprimatur of these currents runs deep, as these intellectual movements were part of a long lineage of radical thought from racially marginalized scholars such as Oliver Cromwell Cox, W.E.B. Du Bois, and Joyce Ladner. For lay readers (and I’m sure this book will draw interested non-specialists), Meghji provides an accessible overview showing critical race theory’s explanatory power across the social sciences.

Foreword Introduction Part One: Critical Race Theory in Education 1. Just What Is Critical Race Theory and What's It Doing in a Nice Field Like Education? Gloria Ladson-Billings 2. Who's Afraid of Critical Race Theory? Derrick Bell 3. Education Policy as an Act of White Supremacy: Whiteness, Critical Race Theory, and Education Reform, David Gillborn Part Two: History and evolution 4. Brown v. Board of Education and the Interest Convergence Dilemma, Derrick Bell 5. Desegregation as a Cold War Imperative, Mary L. Dudziak Part Three: Affirmative Action 6. The We've Done Enough Theory of School Desegration, Mark v. Tushnet 7. Affirmative Action as a Majoritarian Device: Or, Do You Really Want to Be a Role Model? Richard Delgado 8. Critical Race Theory and Interest Convergence in the Backlash Against Affirmative Action: Washington State and Initiative 200, Edward Taylor Part Four: Critical Race Research Methology in Education 9. Critical Race Methodology: Counter Story-Telling as an Analytical Framework for Educational Research, Daniel G. Solorzano and Tara J. Yosso 10. What's Race Got to Do With It? Critical Race Theory's Conflicts With and Connections to Qualitative Research Methodology and Epistemology, Lawrence Parker and Marvin Lynn Part Five: Race in the Classroom 11. A Threat in the Air: How Stereotypes Shape Intellectual Identity and Performance, Claude M. Steele 12. Peer Networks of African American Students in Independent Schools: Affirming Academic Success and Racial Identity, Amanda Datnow and Robert Cooper Part Six: Intersections: Gender, Class, and Culture 13. Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color, Kimberle Williams Crenshaw 14. Ain't I a Woman? Revisiting Intersectionality, Avtar Brah and Ann Phoenix Part Seven: Intersections: White Supremacy and White Allies 15. The Color of Supremacy: Beyond the Discourse of 'White Privilege', Zeus Leonardo 16. Teaching White Students About Racism: The Search for Whites Allies and the Restoration of Hope, Beverly Daniel Tatum Part Eight: Critiques of Critical Race Theory 17. Some Critical Thoughts on Critical Race Theory, Douglas E. Litowitz 18. Telling Stories Out of school: An Essay on Legal Narratives, Daniel A. Farber and Suzanna Sherry 19. On Telling Stores in School: A Reply to Farber and Sherry, Richard Delgado

America is currently at a crossroads regarding race relations. Social and racial inequities have led to disparities in the educational outcomes among Blacks and other groups in this country. These educational disparities, incorrectly defined as an achievement gap, are part of a larger deficit based construct, which continues to deflect attention away from a system of hegemony that has been used to maintain a hierarchy of power and dominance over African Americans. Central to the continuance of this structure is the use of deficit based rhetoric, ideology, and research that continues to perpetuate stereotypes of African American intellectual inferiority. The present study draws on Critical Race Theory (CRT) to examine the racial stereotype threat research to determine its contribution to the achievement gap construct and to examine its place among deficit theories. Counter narratives are provided to illustrate the need for additional research that focuses on the structural, rather than the proposed, psychological causes found within the stereotype theory. Findings of this study show that the current racial stereotype threat research has several limitations, including lack of generalizability, less emphasis on racial stereotype threat between Whites and other racial groups, as well as a blaming-the-victim ideology, and less emphasis on the role that racism and deficit ideology have contributed to the disparity in academic outcomes between Blacks and other racial groups in this country.

<p><b>AbstractThesis title: “My Two Cents on Critical Race Theory”Chapter One: Context and ControversySince Critical Race Theory (CRT) was developed in the United States, Chapter One establishes the relevant historical and contemporary context. I discuss how the Atlantic Slave Trade and Jim Crow segregation established an unjust racial hierarchy that was entrenched by science, religion, and the law. I then turn to recent events to explain why CRT has become a major flashpoint in the ‘culture wars’ in the US and how the Trump Administration took executive action to ban its teaching in federal agencies.</b></p> <p>Chapter Two: CRT’s epistemological rootsThis chapter is divided into two parts. Section One establishes the major philosophical influences on CRT: Marxism and Postmodernism. Section Two defines what “Critical Theories” are, with reference to their origins in the Frankfurt School and key concepts like repressive and liberating tolerance (Herbert Marcuse) and critical pedagogy (Paulo Freire). This background is key to understanding how CRT aims to awaken a “race consciousness” through praxis. Section Three discusses CRT’s more proximate roots in Critical Legal Studies and American Legal Realism to outline aspects of its unique legal lens and why the leading Critical Race theorists eventually became disillusioned with CLS and split off to form CRT.</p> <p>Chapter Three: Critical Race TheoryThis chapter sets out the key principles of CRT. I establish the differences between the materialist and postmodern schools of CRT and give my evaluation of some of its more salient principles.</p> <p>Chapter Four: Critical Race Praxis: Anti-Racism Because a Critical Theory involves a combination of theory and praxis, this final chapter sets out my understanding of what Critical Race praxis looks like in the real world. I provide several case studies to show how CRT, and its foundations in Marxism and Postmodernism, determine real-world outcomes in the practice of anti-racism.</p>

Many legal scholars, practitioners and judges have overlooked the ways in which racial identities and hierarchies have been woven into social systems like law, labour, social power, knowledge and ideology. This article suggests that this oversight can be addressed by developing a post-apartheid critical race theory that puts ‘race’ back on the agenda by situating it within legal, political and social discourses. Such a critical race theory is proposed as an alternative to, and critique of, traditional (liberal/conservative) approaches to race and racism that emphasise individual autonomy, colour-blind constitutionalism and race-neutrality. Critical Race Theory (CRT) seeks to examine, from a legal perspective, the ways in which prevailing conceptions of race (and to some extent, culture and identity) perpetuate relations of domination, oppression and injustice. In South Africa, the necessity of such a critical engagement with race and law is justified by a long history of institutionalised white supremacy and white racial privilege which today coexists with ongoing (and lingering) forms of anti-black racism and racial exclusion. The starting point will be a broad discussion of competing approaches to race and racialism that inform equality jurisprudence and socio-political discourse followed by a theoretical discussion of the conceptual tools of US CRT and an analysis of post-1994 constitutional jurisprudence. The main aim is to problematise the contradictions and tensions that characterise South African equality jurisprudence and human rights discourses by exposing and critiquing the racial ideologies embedded in them. The broader concern of this article, however, is to point to the significance of critical race perspectives in South African legal and interdisciplinary thinking in a way that might disclose possibilities for racial justice and equality.

This chapter addresses the relationship between critical race theory (CRT) scholarship in North America and antiracist research elsewhere, especially in the United Kingdom. It argues that a dialogue between CRT, to date dominated by a focus on the United States, and British antiracism could prove especially fruitful for scholars on both sides of the Atlantic. The chapter reflects on the role of theory in British antiracism. In Britain, antiracism arose as much from a critique of liberal multiculturalism as it did from an analysis of the racist nature of the state. The chapter outlines the CRT and then considers its promise for critical antiracist scholarship and praxis internationally. CRT embraces a movement of left scholars, most of them scholars of color, situated in law schools, whose work challenges the ways in which race and racial power are constructed and represented in American legal culture and, more generally, in American society as a whole.

The nonprofit sector has a wide and well-documented diversity deficit. As the Nonprofit Academic Centers Council (NACC) considers accreditation, we argue that any accreditation process that seeks to elevate the quality and legitimacy of nonprofit education must place diversity at the center of the process. As educators who are preparing students to study, research, and work in nonprofit and philanthropic organizations, we have an opportunity and a responsibility to address the deficits in our institutions through such an emerging accreditation process. Diversified educational environments have been found to improve outcomes for students and for academic institutions at large, and accreditation may provide important leverage for nonprofit education programs to increase diversity. Yet accreditation alone will not address the long-standing and persistent educational structures, policies, practices, and discourses that contribute to the exclusion and marginalization of diverse students and faculty. Using critical race theory as a lens on the policies, practices, methods, and discourses dominant within nonprofit education today, we also call for sustained critical attention to the ways that identity and power dynamics currently operate within nonprofit education and for the development of strategies and approaches that encourage greater diversity, equity, and inclusion across the curriculum.

This article assesses the historical failures and limits of the dominant ‘error correction’ approach within sociolinguistics. The error correction approach supposes that social change can be achieved when knowledge is shared by researchers with the public or figures of institutional authority. This article reviews reflections on sociolinguists’ work toward social change, especially those of Labov, through scholarship in language ideologies and critical race theory. From a language ideological and critical race perspective, error correction is limited in its engagement with marginalizing representations of language because it does not jointly address material conditions and social positions supported by these representations. Exemplifying these limitations, sociolinguistic error-correction efforts that address the evaluation of language practices racialized as Black may have unfortunately distracted from social change agendas that confront material and institutionalized racism directly. To address these limitations, this article highlights existing critical reflexive scholarship that explicitly interrogates disciplinary assumptions. (Critical race theory, error correction, language ideologies, social change, critical reflexivity)*