The Psychology of Testimony and the Interrogation of Children: Contesting the Expertise of Teachers and Female Police Officers, circa 1922-1944.

Police officers play an integral role in enhancing security, which is normally a very basic premise if the economy of a given country is to thrive. The effectiveness and efficiency of police work are doing the right thing to assist the citizens who are their customers at all time. If they don’t perform as expected the public can view it with negativity, and term them as either corrupt or unwilling to meet their needs. For a long time, police officers especially female police officers have had numerous challenges that have consistently contributed to their low morale at work thus subsequently having ripple effects on their performance. The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of work-life challenges on the performance of female police officers in Kenya. The objectives of this study were; to examine the influence of gender stereotypes on the performance of female police officers in Nakuru county; to determine the influence of work-life balance on the performance of female police officers in Nakuru county; to identify how social injustices influences the performance of female police officers in Nakuru County; and to identify the best strategy to help enhance the performance of female police officers in Nakuru county. The study was guided by radical feminist theory and liberal approach theory. This study also adopted a descriptive survey research design. This study relied on primary data specifically a questionnaire and focus group discussion. A sample of 135 female police officers was drawn through stratified and simple random sampling to respond to the questionnaires. On the other hand, convenience sampling was used to select the female police officers who would participate in the focus group discussion. Descriptive statistics such as mean, percentages and standard deviation were used to analyze quantitative data that was obtained. The data was presented in charts, frequency, and tables. Qualitative data were analyzed according to themes and patterns formed. They were presented in narrative and verbatim quotations forms. This study was expected to contribute to the body of knowledge already existing on challenges facing female police officers and even police officers in general. It was also going to inform the national government on various challenges facing female police officers and how to mitigate them to enhance performance and by extension improving security. The study findings indicated that female officers experienced work-life challenges which included gender stereotypes, work-life balance and social injustices that affected their productivity to some extent. The study concluded that female officers encountered many forms of gender stereotypes at their workplace thus influencing their performance. There was a lot of preference for certain people for promotions or recommendations for promotions that took place at the workplace, a lot of bureaucracy and red tape in the management of police operations and missing certain opportunities for handling certain cases in the force because of their gender. The study also concluded that there was a lack of work-life balance amongst the female police officers as they found it difficult to balance their work and family responsibilities. The study recommends that the government or rather the KPS should come up with policy/policies that will cater for both genders and ensure that there is no favouritism and nepotism in the service as well as adopt practical reforms where possible for female officers to be assigned duties during the day to avoid inconveniences of not being able to attend to family and children.

PurposeThis paper aims to examine some of the factors associated with the decision to participate in the promotion process for female police officers in a Midwestern police agency.Design/methodology/approachFace‐to‐face, structured interviews were conducted in the spring of 2006 with most (74 percent) of the female police officers employed by a Midwestern, municipal police agency.FindingsThe authors identified several organizational and personal factors that impact on female police officers' decision to participate in the promotion process. This study also uncovers a factor that has not been addressed in previous research: how being married to fellow police officers (or part of a “cop couple”) can restrict the upward mobility of female police officers.Research limitations/implicationsData for this study were collected from one municipal police agency in the Midwest; therefore, the research findings may not be generalizable to small or very large police agencies. In addition, the female officers in this police agency comprise a relatively high percentage of sworn positions (15 percent) compared to the national average of 12.6 percent; therefore, the experiences of the women in this department may not be representative of other female police officers working in agencies where women comprise either more or less than 15 percent of all sworn positions. Another limitation of this study is that the sample size is small. This is a limitation that most researchers will encounter when they choose to study female police officers, as there are so few women who work in American police agencies.Practical implicationsBy identifying the barriers that female officers face when deciding to go through the promotion process, the authors were able to provide several administrative changes that could be made to encourage more female officers to participate in the promotion process.Originality/valueThere is very limited published research on the promotion of female police officers. This study uncovers a factor that has not been addressed in previous research: how being married to fellow police officers can restrict the upward mobility of female police officers, thus resulting in a “marriage tax” for female police officers.

In a first-step cultivation theory analysis, this study examined the frequency and quality of female municipal police officers depicted in either the leading or joint leading role in the first 4 decades of the core cop film genre. An examination of 112 films released between 1971 and 2011 found that only 15 films portrayed female municipal police officers in either the leading or joint leading role. Findings revealed that key barriers regularly faced by female police officers, such as sexual harassment, gender harassment, and gender discrimination, were not addressed in the films. Female municipal police officers were, however, repeatedly depicted as having had intimate relationships with senior male police officers and/or portrayed as becoming officers because of being scarred emotionally or mentally by past traumatic events. According to cultivation theory, such depictions would cultivate a perceived social reality in which females only become police officers if they are emotionally scarred and intimacy with male colleagues is the norm. This study provides insight into the potential impact the lack and quality of existing portrayals have on the recruitment, hiring, and retention of female municipal police officers.

Back to table of contents Previous article Next article Clinical & Research NewsFull AccessWhy Are Some Women Better Able to Fend Off PTSD?Joan Arehart-TreichelJoan Arehart-TreichelSearch for more papers by this authorPublished Online:7 Aug 2009https://doi.org/10.1176/pn.44.15.0031aWomen have been found to be generally more susceptible to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) than men are.But “generally” doesn't mean, of course, that this susceptibility applies to every woman. Female police officers have been shown to be just as resistant to PTSD as are male police officers, for example. This finding was reported by Nnamdi Pole, Ph.D., an associate professor of psychology at Smith College, and colleagues in the July 2001 Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease.So if some women are better armored against PTSD than others, why might this be the case? Pole and his colleagues conducted another study to find out. And the answer, they reported in the August Journal of Anxiety Disorders, seems to be that the PTSD-resilient women experience less intense fear, helplessness, and horror when faced with trauma.In this study, the researchers compared 157 women police officers with 124 civilian women. The subject groups were comparable on age and education, although the officer group had significantly higher income and a greater proportion of ethnic minorities than the civilian one. The researchers had the subjects respond to several questionnaires detailing the most traumatic experience they had endured, how they reacted to it emotionally, whether they experienced dissociation at the time of trauma, how they coped with the trauma, how much social support they had, PTSD symptoms they experienced due to the trauma, and physical symptoms they currently had, such as headaches, pain in the chest or lower back, nausea, or muscle soreness.The resulting data indicated that the police officers were more likely than the civilian women to have reported physical assault or violence as their worst personal trauma. Nonetheless, they experienced significantly less-severe PTSD symptoms in reaction to their worst personal trauma than did the civilian women.The researchers then sought an explanation for why the female police officers seemed to be more successful in fending off PTSD. It seems to be because they experienced significantly less emotional distress and significantly less dissociation at the time of trauma than did their civilian counterparts.Emotional Intensity May Be KeyAnd as Pole and his team stressed in their report, “Our results [also] indirectly imply that differences between men and women in PTSD may result from gender disparities in the intensity of emotions that contribute most to PTSD.”These findings, of course, make one wonder, if civilian women learned how to react less emotionally at the time of a crisis, would they match women police officers in ability to guard against PTSD? While Pole and colleagues acknowledge that this is a possibility, they caution that these women might also rechannel repressed emotions into somatic symptoms.The reason that Pole and his colleagues are concerned about the emotions being rechanneled is that once they considered differences in the amount of traumatic distress experienced by the police officer group and by the civilian group, they found that the former experienced greater somatization. Also,“ civilian males have been found to be more likely than civilian females to substitute emotional symptoms with somatic symptoms following a traumatic event,” they noted.Do Officers Adopt Male Values?An interesting question raised by this study is why female police officers seem to be more emotionally resilient than female civilians are. Are they inherently tougher or more comfortable with violence and that is why they go into police work, or do they become tough after becoming police? Pole and his colleagues favor the latter explanation. “We think that it is likely that policing experiences played some role in muting peri-traumatic emotions in the female officers. Women are in the minority in virtually all police departments and encounter enormous pressure to conform to male norms.... [Also] females in male-dominated professions tend to develop male values, attitudes, and behaviors over time. Thus, it is likely that female officers would come to resemble their male coworkers in terms of emotional expression even if they began their careers behaving like civilian women.”Finally, as for the implications of the study for psychiatrists, “I hope that our research directs psychiatrists to do a more careful assessment of the quality and magnitude of emotional distress that occurs during a traumatic event,” Pole told Psychiatric News. “I believe that these factors are fundamentally more important than gender or even the type of traumatic event.”The study was funded by the National Institute of Mental Health.An abstract of “Gender and PTSD: What Can We Learn From Female Police Officers?” can be accessed at<www.sciencedirect.com> by clicking on “J,” then “Journal of Anxiety Disorders,” then the August issue. ▪ ISSUES NewArchived

– The purpose of this paper is to explore whether male and female police officers report different levels of occupational stress and burnout. Also, the research seeks to examine whether various factors that are purported to influence occupational stress and burnout have differential effects on male and female officers., – Using a sample of police officers working in a large metropolitan department in the Northeast, the paper begins by using t‐tests to make gender comparisons between the average levels of occupational stress and burnout between male and female officers. Next, separate multivariate analyses were run for male and female officers to determine how a set of independent variables measuring the work‐environment, coping mechanisms, and other demographic characteristics affected the measures of occupational stress and burnout., – The findings indicate that male and female officers did not report significantly different levels of occupational stress and burnout. Results of the separate multivariate analyses reveal that, although there are similar predictors of stress and burnout for male and female officers, differences did exist in the models, lending support to the assertion that the female officers may experience unique stressors in the police organization. The multivariate results also indicate that African‐American female officers report significantly higher levels of burnout than other officers., – The current research adds to the knowledge about how levels and predictors of work‐related stress and burnout compare between male and female police officers. The current study is limited by its focus on only one police department located in the Northeast. This may limit the generalizability of the results., – The results of the study have implications for programs and policies that seek to prevent stress and burnout among police officers. The results of the current study indicate that a one‐program‐fits‐all approach may not be the best way for departments to help officers to deal with stress and burnout, since male and female officers may not experience or deal with these issues in a similar fashion.

BackgroundPolicing has traditionally been viewed as a masculine domain, which may influence how the job is perceived. While female police officers currently constitute an increasing part of the workforce, policing remains a male-dominated field globally, and gender-related challenges persist. The current study explores how female police officers in Sweden navigate the gendered norms and physical challenges they face.MethodsSemi-structured and cognitive interviews were conducted with 11 female Swedish police officers. Reflexive thematic analyses, as described by Braun and Clarke, were employed to analyse the data. The methods and results were reported in accordance with qualitative reporting standards.ResultsThe findings are presented through one overarching theme: ‘Challenges with policing in a man’s world: Gendered expectations and physical realities’, describing how female officers in Sweden navigate physical and psychological demands in a profession designed for male bodies, finding creative solutions while facing ill-fitting equipment, physical strain, and challenges related to pregnancy and recovery. They also balance their roles as women, romantic partners, and mothers while managing the unique demands of policing and shift work. The results are separated into the following themes: ‘Fitting the female body and mind into a traditionally male profession’ and ‘The dual identity: A police officer and a woman’.ConclusionSwedish female police officers navigate physical demands, gendered expectations, and work–life imbalance in a male-dominated profession. While resourceful in managing these challenges, the findings highlight the need for structural reforms. Even in gender-progressive contexts, women continue to face double burdens and unequal expectations. Hence, the findings serve as applicable both nationally and internationally, and promoting equity and inclusion is crucial for the well-being and sustainability of female officers.

The job of the police is to prevent crime and, when a crime occurs, quickly initiate an investigation and apprehend the criminal. Recently, the attitude of female police officers in responding to criminals has been socially criticized. However, the police not only responds to crime but also provides security services to the public, so while the role of male police officers is becoming more important, the role of female police officers is also becoming more important. In previous research on the police, research is being conducted focusing on various research topics such as police organization and job satisfaction of police officers. However, research on female police officers' discrimination against women or female police officers' job satisfaction is somewhat limited. In addition, the police profession is an occupation with a strong sense of professional ethics, which means protecting the country and its citizens, and its sense of duty is considered important. Accordingly, this study sought to verify what moderating effect professional consciousness has on work satisfaction among female police officers in terms of discrimination against women. As a result of the study, discrimination against women was found to have an effect on work satisfaction, but the interaction term between discrimination against women and work consciousness did not show statistically significant results. However, it was confirmed that work consciousness affects work satisfaction. In other words, it was confirmed that female police officers have an effect on work satisfaction due to their work consciousness, but that discrimination against women does not affect work satisfaction no matter how excellent their work consciousness is. Based on these research results, discrimination against women, work satisfaction, and professional consciousness of female police officers were discussed.

In light of the increased recruitment of females into the police force in Taiwan, it is important to understand officers' attitudes toward women in policing. What is the nature of such attitudes? Are male and female officers equally receptive to gender integration in policing? Using data gathered from 391 police officers (297 males and 94 females) in the metropolitan area of Taipei, this study compared male and female officers' attitudes toward women in policing and gender role orientations. The findings indicated that male officers significantly differed from their female colleagues in several attitudinal dimensions. The findings revealed that although male officers cast doubts on female officers' capability and efficacy as police officers, they considered equal treatment to be essential – that is, female officers should perform exactly the same or similar duties as male officers. Moreover, officers who were in supervisory positions were more likely to support gender integration, and those officers who had more confidence in police work were more likely to have positive appraisal of female officers. Nevertheless, officers with a longer tenure in the police force were less likely to hold positive perceptions of women in policing. In comparison with male officers, female officers were less likely to be supportive of gender integration that demands women to perform exactly the same or similar duties as males. Policy implications and suggestions for future research are addressed.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine how receptive police officers are to having women as partners and supervisors at work in a cross-national context. Specifically, it compares male and female police officers’ views on women in policing along three dimensions in Dubai and Taipei: perceived efficacy of women in policing; receptiveness of women at work (as partners and supervisor); and perceived women’s role in police work. Design/methodology/approach Surveys (with the same instrument) were conducted with 622 officers (344 male and 278 female officers) in Dubai, the United Arab Emirates and 391 officers (297 male and 94 female officers) in Taipei, Taiwan. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were employed to compare male and female officers’ views on women in policing in both countries. Findings It was found that female officers (in Dubai and Taipei) were more likely than their male colleagues to see women as capable and effective in performing police duties. Compared to their colleagues in Taiwan, the Emirati male and female officers were more likely to be supportive of women’s restricted role in policing. Dubai male officers were less likely to be receptive to working at a unit with a female as their supervisor in comparison to their female colleagues in both countries. Research limitations/implications Although this study provides important information from a cross-national perspective, caution should be taken while interpreting these findings. The gender roles embedded in Islamic cultures seem to explain Dubai officers’ favorable attitudes toward women’s restricted role in policing. Future studies should incorporate in-depth interviews to explain why officers in Dubai prefer women’s restricted roles in policing. Practical implications The statistical analyses show that officers with higher levels of confidence not only held more positive attitudes toward women in policing, but also were more receptive to having women as their partners and supervisors. It suggests that confident officers would be more open-minded and welcome the entry of women into police work. By offering training courses that enhance officers’ work confidence, police organizations in both countries might well cultivate a welcoming work environment for women. Social implications If police organizations in Taiwan and the UAE instill cultures with an emphasis less on masculine traits than on collaborative style, male officers might free themselves from traditional gender norms and become more welcoming to women who work in policing. Originality/value Previous scholarly efforts on examining different areas of women in policing have mainly focused on police officers in western countries, leaving a relative scarcity of information about how officers perceive women’s role in policing in the other parts of the globe. Female officers have to work hand in hand with male officers in policing. To enhance the efficiency of deployment and cohesion of work relationship among male and female officers, it is important to understand how male officers perceive women’s roles in policing and how receptive they are to having women as partners. Understanding their perceptions from both sides can help administrations initiate effective training and educational programs.

It is frequently asserted that female police officers are less likely than their male counterparts to engage in misconduct or to approve of such behaviour by fellow officers. This paper assesses the extent to which such assumptions hold true in the case of Queensland police. The paper draws upon three sources of data: attitudinal surveys administered to serving police officers, police-initiated complaints, and public complaints against police. Attitudinal data showed few differences between male and female police officers in their views of ethical conduct and the stated willingness to report a fellow officer known to have behaved inappropriately. In addition, female recruits were found to be as likely as males to modify their views once they have spent some time ‘in the field’. Attitudinal results were supported by the finding that, regardless of gender, only a small number of officers below the rank of Sergeant were willing to initiate complaints of misconduct against a fellow police officer. Complaints against police data showed male officers were more likely than female officers to attract complaints, in particular, complaints of assault. Overall, the findings question the argument that female officers are inherently ‘more ethical’ in their outlook or that they are more willing to report misconduct than their male counterparts. While female police officers may not be inherently more ethical, their employment has some important organisational advantages, such as enabling a reduction in complaints, particularly those relating to the use of force, and a reinforcement of the principles of community policing.

이 연구는 경찰과 교정직 여성공무원들이 경험하고 있는 조직 내의 성희롱·성폭력과 조직 내의 각종 성차별적 제도·문화·관행 등에 대하여 이들의 인식태도를 살펴보고 이러한 부정적 요소가 이직의도에 어떠한 영향을 미치는지를 검증하고자 하였다. 분석결과, 여성 경찰공무원과 교정직 여성공무원 모두 조직의 양성평등 의식이 부족할수록, 그들의 성차별 피해경험이 많을수록, 조직문화 및 관행이 남성 중심적일수록 이직의도를 높게 형성하고 있는 것으로 나타났다. 그리고 이직의도에 영향을 미치는 요인들을 각 조직별로 비교 분석해보면 먼저, 경찰직에 있어서는 남녀평등의식이 부족할수록, 조직문화 및 관행이 남성 중심적일수록 여성 경찰공무원의 이직의도가 높은 것으로 나타났다. 반면에 교정직에서는 연령이 높을수록, 성차별 피해를 많이 경험할수록, 기혼보다 미혼일수록, 양성평등의식이 부족할수록, 이직의도가 높게 형성되는 것을 발견할 수 있었다. 따라서 그들의 이직을 억제하기 위해서는 첫째, 남성적 조직문화와 관행들이 개선될 수 있도록 양성평등 교육을 확대하고 내실화해야 한다. 둘째, 일·가정 양립을 위한 법, 제도적 장치를 더욱 확대하고 조직 관리자나 내부 구성원들의 인식을 개선하여 여성은 물론 남성 공무원들도 적극적으로 제도를 활용하도록 해야 한다. 셋째, 직무 내외를 불문하고 여성 교정 공무원들에게 발생하는 다양한 성차별적 관행들을 개선하여 진정한 의미의 기회와 보상의 평등권이 실현되도록 해야 할 것이다. 넷째, 성희롱 피해경험이 여성 공무원들의 이직의도 형성에 유의미한 영향을 미치지는 않고 있지만 성희롱 피해가 매우 은밀하게 발생할 수 있고 피해자에게 극심한 심리적 문제를 야기할 수 있으므로 성희롱 가해자에 대한 엄벌주의 역시 동시에 확립해야 한다.The purpose of this study is searching the recognition attitudes of the female Police and Correctional officers and verifying the effects of negative factors to turnover intention about sexual harassment, and various gender discriminational system, culture and practices that the female Police and Correctional officers has experienced. As a result, both of the female Police and Correctional officers build higher turnover intention when recognition of gender equality are less, officers experienced more gender discrimination experiences, organizational culture and practices are more masculine. Additionally, compare and analyze the factors that affects to turnover intentions by each organization. First, by police organization, the female Police officers build higher turnover intention when recognition of gender equality are less, organizational culture and practices are more masculine. On the other side, by correctional organization, the female Correctional officers build higher turnover intention when the age of officers is higher, the officers experienced more damages from gender discriminations, the officers are unmarried, recognition of gender equality are less. Following the result, for the restriction of turnover. there are four suggestion. First, expand and substantialize gender equality education to improve masculine organizational culture and practices. Second, expand legal and institutional strategies for work-family reconciliation and improve recognition of organizational administrator and internal to allow male and female officers to use system Third, regardless the inside and outside of officers’ dutie, improve various gender discriminative practices for the female Correctional officers to realize equal rights of opportunities and compensation. Forth, even though experience of sexual harassment does not affect to turnover intention of female Police and Correctional officers, punitivism ought to be simultaneously established due to damage of sexual harassment is available to occur secretly and cause severe psychological damage.

Change of direction speed (CODS) is an important performance ability for police officers. This is even more emphasized when officers perform tasks while carrying their occupational load (e.g., protective vest, weapon, radio, cuffs, etc.). The absolute weight of the equipment remains the same regardless of the officer’s body size and weight, which is of importance for female police officers whose morphology is different than in males. This study investigated the associations between selected measures of the body morphology and CODS among female police officers under two loading conditions. The sample consisted of 29 female police officers (age = 32.00±5.09 yrs, body height = 162.92±5.01 cm, and body mass = 70.88±13.42 kg). Anthropometric variables included height, weight, and body mass index (BMI), while body composition characteristics included percent body fat, (PBF), percentage of skeletal muscle mass (PSMM), and index of hypokinesia (IH). CODS was assessed using the Illinois agility tests under loaded (LIAT) (10 kg vest) and unloaded (IAT) conditions. Participants CODS times were significantly slower in the LIAT condition (p &lt; 0.001). IAT correlated to BMI (r=0.479, p&lt;0.05), PBF (r=0.647, p&lt;0.001), PSMM (r=-0.655, p≤0.001), and IH (r=0.462, p&lt;0.05). Similarly, LIAT was associated with BMI (r=0.446, p&lt;0.05), PBF (r=0.651, p&lt;0.001), PSMM (r=-0.672, p&lt;0.001), and IH (r= 0.503, p&lt;0.01). These findings highlight the need for developing specific physical training programs aimed at improving and maintaining healthy body composition levels among female officers if improved CODS is the goal.

Data about physiological performance of female ironman triathletes are rare. However, some studies have reported this endurance sport may cause damage to the right or left ventricles, even in females. The goal of this study was to assess prospectively the right/left ventricular function and physiological performance in female athletes (middle- and long ironman distance) and to compare the findings to female federal police officers. A total of 33 female triathletes and 37 female police officers were examined using spiro-ergometry and echocardiography. Female triathletes achieved VO2max 52.8 ± 5.7 ml/kg(-1)·min(-1), and police officers 35.3 ± 6.5 ml/kg(-1)·min(-1) In athletes, left ventricular end-diastolic diameter was 4.4 ± 0.3 cm and in police officers 4.5 ± 0.4 cm, and the left ventricular muscle mass index was 85.8 g/m(2 )± 18.7 in athletes and in police officers 72.0 g/m(2 )± 9.1. Right ventricular area change among athletes was 49.4 ± 8.5%, and in police officers 46.0 ± 6.9%. The performance date of female triathletes can be used as training prescription for leisure female triathletes, when middle or long distances in triathlon competitions are planned. No right or left ventricular dysfunction was found despite long training and finishing of long distance competitions: non-elite athletes, 5.4 ± 2.8 years of triathlon competitions; elite athletes, 7.6 ± 5.8 years.

Use of force by female police officers

Sexual misconduct among on-duty police officers has received little scholarly attention. Existing research that has attempted to provide police officers' views on this matter has been dominated by the male perspective. The present study focuses on female officers' perspectives and provides insight into the nature and extent of such behavior. The findings show that female officers report that police sexual misconduct is common. Differences in perceptions about such behavior between female and male officers are identified. Theoretical explanations for police sexual misconduct are explored. Policy implications of how police sexual misconduct might be better controlled are discussed.