The Pre-70 ce Dating of the Gospel of John: ‘There is (ἔστιν) in Jerusalem … a pool … which has five porticoes’ (5.2)

SZAGUN, GISELA. On the Frequency of Use of Tenses in English and German Children's Spontaneous Speech. CHmLD DEVELOPMENT, 1978, 49, 898-901. This cross-cultural study examined the frequency of use of tenses by English and German children between 2-6 and 4-6. Developmental changes in frequency of use of tenses were observed: frequency of use of present tenses decreased significantly with age, at the same rate and level in both languages, and frequency of past and future tenses increased correspondingly, with past tenses increasing more rapidly. Children's frequencies did not correlate with adult frequencies of use of tenses. The children's frequencies of use of present, past, and future tenses were interpreted as indicative of their cognitive organization of temporal experience.

The production of verb tenses leads to better language development of children with cochlear implants. The aim of this study was to assess the acquisition of verb tenses in children with cochlear implants. The sample included 60 children, aged from 9 to 15, with average intellectual abilities. The study group consisted of 30 patients with cochlear implants, with no additional disabilities. The control group consisted of 30 subjects with typical speech - language development and preserved hearing. The acquisition of basic tenses was assessed by 'Corpus for the Assessment of the Use of Tenses' (Dimić, 2003). Significant statistical differences were found in the use of the present tense in children with cochlear implants and hearing children (t=-4.385; p<0.001) as well as in the use of the past tense (t=-4.650; p<0.001), and the future tense (t=-4.269; p<0.001). There was also a significant difference in the use of irregular verb 'go' (t=-3.958; p<0.001), as well as in the combination of the present and the past tense (t=-5.806; p<0.001). The present tense was used correctly by most children with cochlear implants (70%), followed by the past tense (53%), and finally the future tense (23%). Children with cochlear implants, even after several years of re/habilitation, do not reach the grammatical development of children with normal hearing.

The use of the present tense as the primary narrative tense has become a commonly encountered phenomenon in contemporary fiction. The textual effects of the use of the present narrative tense, however, have not yet been fully explored. This paper first reviews how the use of tenses contributes to constructing narrative worlds, focusing on three facets of narrative: the relationship between the narrator and the narrated, time frames within the narrative and characters’ discourse embedded in narrative. Then, using corpus data which includes both present- and past-tense fiction, I will show that the boundaries and distinctions which are consistently taken for granted in past-tense narrative can be blurred, crossed within narratorial structures and partly expanded at a meta-textual level from written discourse to spoken discourse.

&lt;p&gt;This paper reports a study of English tense use in second language writing. Attempting to validate Oster’s (1981) claims on tense use as a rhetorical device in discourse, the study seeks to find out whether Indonesian writers’ use of English tense conforms or confront the previous claims. The data are drawn from twelve journal articles taken from three different Indonesian scientific journals. The use of tense is accounted and analyzed according to the rhetorical functions it plays. The results show that 89% of the present tense verbs are used differently. Contrary to Oster’s claim, this study proves that present tense is also used for generalization. This study also indicates that simple present tense is used more frequently within non-integral citations than the use of simple past tense and present perfect tense in reporting past literature. This paper argues that professional writers are more likely to employ non-integral citations to promote their own ideas to the readers. This is shown by the prominent use of non-integral citations and their combination with the present tense.&lt;/p&gt;

The historical present, the use of the present tense to refer to past events, is a feature of narrative which has long been recognized. The object of this analysis is the use of the historical present tense specifically in narratives which occur in everyday conversational interactions. This usage will be referred to as the conversational historical present to distinguish it from the use of this tense in other genres such as travelogues and jokes. In the analysis of the occurrence of the conversational historical present, it was found that features of the relationship between the speaker and the audience had a strong influence. This is true not because the use of the linguistic feature itself is socially stratified, but rather because it functions as one of a set of features which appear in a specific type of narrative and is therefore governed by norms of interaction which constrain the social behavior involved in the recounting of such narratives. The fact that the use of the conversational historical present is an interactional variable in this respect has had important theoretical and methodological implications for the analysis which is reported here. The basic theoretical point is that in the study of the conversational historical present one sees a perfect example of the relationship between linguistic structure and language use.

Aeneid Book 7 Virgil (bio) Translated by Ian Ganassi (bio) TRANSLATOR’S NOTE: As the first book of the second half of the Aeneid, Book 7 sets the tone and gives the essential underpinnings of the plot for the next six books. This part of the poem concerns Aeneas’s attempt to found his new Troy (Rome) in Latium (Italy), to which the gods have directed him. Books 1–6 refer largely to Homer—they are not an imitation of the Odyssey, but much of Aeneas’s wanderings through the Mediterranean recall that story. The second half is evocative of the Iliad; it concerns war. As in the first half of the poem, Juno sabotages Aeneas’s divine mission to found a new homeland for the Trojans. Juno’s (Greek Hera’s) hatred of the Trojans goes back to the Judgment of Paris, when Aphrodite (Roman Venus) was chosen to receive what would be called the “apple of discord.” The main purpose of Book 7 is to present Juno’s interference, and how it results in war with the native peoples of Italy. One important difference between the halves is their degree of completion. The first six books are relatively “finished.” The next six are more flawed, and thus present difficulties to the translator. Some flaws are obvious ones of consistency: For one, the invocation to the muse is directed to Erato, the muse of lyric poetry, rather than to Calliope, the muse of epic poetry. Another error is the incorrect attribution of the prophecy that the Trojans will “eat their tables.” Flaws in the writing are harder to identify, though there are a number of incomplete lines throughout; had Virgil lived, he would have corrected these. To my mind, other lapses include the hasty treatment of the death of Aeneas’s nurse, Caeieta, and what seems to be an abrupt ending to the book overall. Virgil considered the Aeneid too flawed for publication, and it was his dying wish that the manuscript be destroyed. Fortunately, Augustus countermanded him. One aspect of Virgil’s writing in the Aeneid that challenges the translator, and puzzles many readers, is his use of the present tense in past tense narrative. He often moves back and forth between the two. Some Latinists refer to this use of the present tense as “the historical present.” Its purpose is (apparently) to add liveliness, excitement, “presentness,” to the storytelling. Translators deal with it in different ways. Some ignore it altogether and put the narrative in the past tense, but I feel that this is too easy and that it leaches some of the energy from the text. This odd use of tenses also points obliquely to the roots of epic poetry as part of an oral tradition. I come to this translation not as a classicist or a Latinist but as a poet with great reverence and admiration for Virgil’s poetry (and with six years of Latin), and particularly for the Aeneid. I approached Book 7 as I have approached the first six books (which have appeared in NER). Partly because of its flaws, and partly because of its utilitarian role, I elected to cut some descriptive and discursive passages for the purposes of this translation. My goal is to remain as true as possible (not always perfectly) to the letter, and elegance, of Virgil’s Latin, while simultaneously creating an exciting and absorbing version (a “good read,” as Robert Fitzgerald put it), accessible to a wide range of readers. —IG [End Page 74] for Bob Stein, in memoriam After building the funeral mound for Caeieta, Aeneas’s former nurse, Aeneas and his companions finally make landfall in Italy (Ausonia, Latium), destined to become, in time, the site of Rome. Juno, however, always hostile to Aeneas and his mission, causes the native Latins, along with other native tribes, to band together for war against the Trojans. Book 7 ends with a catalogue of the forces arrayed against Aeneas and his people. Good Aeneas, having performed the rites as custom requires,Piles the funeral mound; the wild seas grow calm,The journey stretches the sails, and he leaves the port behind.Their path brings them close to...

PurposeThe field of international business (IB) formally welcomes and frequently calls for case study research, but the proportion of case study papers appearing in IB journals remains very small. This paper aims to support efforts to redress this imbalance by addressing an overlooked yet critical issue: the (mis)use of tenses when theorizing from case study findings. The authors reveal a pervasive use of the present tense and argue that this leads to decontextualization and, in turn, over-generalization. The paper also suggests ways in which this problem may be avoided in the future, thereby improving the credibility and status of case-based research and helping to de-marginalise it within IB.Design/methodology/approachA qualitative content analysis was applied to all (2,627) papers published between 2011 and 2021 in four leading IB journals. In total, 171 case study papers were identified over these 11 years, and a deeper content analysis was then performed to measure the extent of decontextualization/over-generalization implied by the inappropriate use of the present tense in the discussion and theorisation of research findings.FindingsThis study found that, out of 171 case study papers identified, 141 (82.5%) provided at least two instances of over-generalization as implied by the misuse of the present tense. However, some of these papers were found to feature statements that could be claimed to mitigate such inappropriate generalization. These mitigating factors included the repeated use of adverbial phrases denoting context and the use of a “propositional style” that clearly distinguished contextual findings from speculative, decontextualized generalizations. Nevertheless, 71 of the 171 (41.5%) papers still demonstrated inappropriate generalization, even after allowing for mitigating factors.Originality/valueThis study reveals a problematic writing practice and one which has arguably significantly contributed to the “decontextualization” problem critiqued in IB and management studies more broadly. The study also offers further insights into how decontextualization might be avoided, arguing that this problem would be significantly reduced if tenses were used appropriately in discussing and theorizing case study findings. Additionally, the study highlights the continued marginalization of qualitative research methods in IB and reinforces calls to address it.

OBJETIVO: Este estudo buscou analisar quantitativamente o uso do tempo (presente, passado ou futuro), modo (indicativo, subjuntivo ou imperativo), número (singular ou plural) e pessoa (1ª, 2ª ou 3ª) dos verbos enunciados em situação de fala espontânea por pré-escolares falantes do Português Brasileiro, na cidade de São Paulo, em desenvolvimento normal de linguagem. MÉTODOS: Coleta de amostras de fala de 60 pré-escolares divididos em três grupos pareados por gênero e faixa etária: GI (entre 2:0 e 2:11 anos), GII (entre 3:0 e 3:11 anos) e GIII (entre 4:0 e 4:11 anos). RESULTADOS: A análise intragrupos demonstrou haver predominância do modo indicativo, do tempo presente, do número singular e da 3ª pessoa. A análise intergrupos indicou que o uso do modo indicativo é crescente, enquanto o imperativo é decrescente e o subjuntivo quase não ocorreu nesta amostra. O tempo presente não difere entre os grupos enquanto o passado e o futuro aumentam. Quanto ao número, o singular predomina, mas tanto singular como plural aumentam. Finalmente, a 3ª pessoa predominou, a 2ª decresceu e a 1ª cresceu de GI para GIII. CONCLUSÃO: Os resultados demonstraram que os pré-escolares estudados aprimoraram o emprego da morfologia verbal ao longo de seu desenvolvimento, exibindo uma evolução gradual no domínio dos aspectos analisados. Por fim, não foram encontradas diferenças significantes na comparação dos gêneros.

This article explores the difference of tense and aspect use in Arabic academic writing by native and non-native speakers, driven by the challenges non-native speakers face in accurately conveying temporality in academic contexts. Improving non-native proficiency in Arabic grammar is crucial for enhancing the clarity of their research output. The study data consisted of academic articles written by both groups, specifically focusing on the results and discussion sections. Through qualitative analysis, findings revealed that native speakers demonstrate a strong grasp of grammar, with balanced use of past and present tenses and appropriate aspects, effectively expressing both completed and ongoing actions. In contrast, non-native speakers, particularly those from Indonesian backgrounds, tend to overuse the present tense and active voice, indicating difficulties in fully understanding Arabic’s temporal aspects. These results underscored the need for more intensive language instruction focused on mastering Arabic tense and aspect structures to improve non-native academic writing skills.

Bilingual children sometimes show delays relative to monolinguals on language tasks. In the present studies, we explored whether French–English bilinguals’ tense use and shift would show a developmental lag in the context of narration. In Study 1, we showed that both French and English monolinguals showed age-related changes in tense use, with preschoolers preferring the past and adults the present. A developmental lag among bilingual children could therefore take the form of prolonged use of the past tense through middle childhood. In Study 2, we observed tense use in the narratives of French–English bilingual children (8–10 years), as well as French and English monolinguals from the same age group. The bilinguals tended to use more present tense than the monolinguals. In qualitative analyses, bilinguals also used a multitude of expressive strategies, such as exclamations, repetitions and onomatopoeia, that made the stories more vivid. Taken together these results suggest that French–English bilinguals do not present developmental differences from monolinguals in tense use. Instead, they adopt an imagistic narrative style that differs from the monolinguals in multiple ways, including a greater use of the present tense. The adoption of this style might be linked to both bilingualism and a cultural preference among French–English bilinguals.

L ’E s pr it C r éa te u r tributions from Bachelard, Barrère, de Man, Gaudon, Glauser, Moreau, Riffaterre, Carol Rigolot, and Paul Zumthor. J o h n A . F r e y The George Washington University Christiane Papadopoulos. L ’E x p r e s s io n d u te m p s d a n s l ’œ u v r e r o m a n e s q u e e t a u t o ­ b io g r a p h iq u e d e M a r g u e r i t e Y o u r c e n a r . B e rn e , F r a n k f u r t/ M ., New Y o rk , 1988. pp. 211. Originally a doctoral dissertation written at the University of Zurich, L'Expression du temps dans l'œuvre romanesque et autobiographique de Marguerite Yourcenar has as its purpose “ d’arriver à une compréhension approfondie de la notion de temps de Yourcenar en analysant les moyens ... par lesquels la nature et le mouvement du temps sont traduits dans quelques-unes de ses œuvres...” (6). Papadopoulos restricts her examination to Yourcenar’s novels and autobiographical works, commenting only occasionally on Feux and Nouvelles Orientales, which, like Denier du rêve, “ d aten t... d’une époque où le mythe avait joué un rôle vraiment essentiel” (6). The work is largely a stylistic one in which Papadopoulos studies the use of tenses and sequence of tenses; the occurrence of various themes, images and symbols, especially those she feels to be the central expressions of Yourcenar’s conception of time: water, the circle and the mirror. She looks carefully, too, at indirect styles which, in her view, serve as a means of conveying biography. She studies the differences in the author’s stance on styles appropriate to biography and autobiography. She underscores devices that Yourcenar favored for abolishing or extending distance, both spatial and temporal, especially objects and irony. She brings into focus as well those images that Yourcenar commonly used to express the eternal, including examples from the lives of real and fictional characters, the author’s own life, and the genesis of her writings. The theoretical bases on which this detailed study is based are explained and docu­ mented at great length, in the tradition of doctoral theses. The theoreticians include, among others, Poulet, Pouillon, Weinrich, and Weyl, on time; Lejeune, on autobiography; Deforge and Baudrillard, on the role of objects; Jankélévitch, Allemann, Fontanier, Morier, and Kerbrat-Orecchioni, on figures of speech, notably irony; and many published critics on Yourcenar’s work. The author would have done well to have reworked much of this aspect of her work. The information provided, while required in a doctoral thesis, is rather basic, and could be assumed to be known by the audience to whom the book is addressed. Unfortunately, too, much of the commentary on this theoretical work leads Papadopoulos only to rather elementary conclusions, e.g., images of space can imply images of time, the use of the present tense can signal a general maxim, irony “ distances” the reader and author from an object. While the book suffers somewhat from a doctoral style and structure, it does open dis­ cussion on a great many topics related to time in the works of Yourcenar which, although too numerous to receive full treatment in the book, may fruitfully serve as the starting point for further examination. The study also attests to the author’s “ émerveillement” and to her attempt to “ open her eyes” (199) to all of the great questions that Yourcenar illustrates in the course of her literary career. C. F r e d e r ic k F a r r e l l , J r . a n d E d it h R. F a r r e l l The University o f Minnesota, Morris 108 W i n t e r 1989 ...

ABSTRACT: Terminology for identifying and describing what counts as a linguistic feature is identified as a problem that prevents an understanding of tense and aspect features in Black South African English (BSAE). In this paper, an alternative set of assumptions is proposed for linguistic analysis of new varieites. Grammar should not be regarded as aprioristic, but rather as emergent. The syntagmatic structure of language in context is highlighted as a more useful starting point for the identification of regularities in the description of a variety such as BSAE. After indicating a number of quantitative trends, a detailed qualitative analysis of three texts is undertaken. The analysis leads to the identification of a number of previously unidentified patterns. The timeless use of the present tense creates idealised and generalised verbal processes, rather than historically and/or contextually situated presentations of events. Aspectual meanings are more salient than temporal sequencing of events relative to one another or to the reference point established by the time of writing, speaking or reading. Spatial grounding in the nominal groups seems more important to the writers/speakers than temporal grounding in the verbal group. The observed patterns show that the use of tense and aspect forms, supported by various lexical selections in the texts, is highly consistent and shows regularity, despite the fact that the data may differ from a Standard English rendition of the same content. The paper concludes that it is misleading to judge the data in terms of other varieties of English, rather than in their own terms.

The article examines non-deictic uses of present and future tense in Lithuanian. Narrative use, in which reference intervals match with singular events, is distinguished from suspended propositions characterized by lack of such reference intervals (habitual, dispositional and circumstantial modal, and conditional meanings). Present tense is frequently involved in both usage domains, while the future is rare in narrative use, but overlaps with present tense in certain types of suspended propositions. Moreover, its temporal-deictic use is inherently associated with suspended propositions and “linked” to them via epistemic implicatures. This, in contrast to the present, makes the future more likely to be employed in predictions which entail an observer.The analysis is supplemented by a brief comparison with non-deictic tense use in the nonpast-domain of Slavic languages, yielding a grid of criteria that should be used in crosslinguistic studies on tense-aspect systems based on stem derivation and the feature [±bounded].

The use of present tense in the headlines about famous people in the online tabloid Bulgaria Today makes difficult to determine the temporal orientation of the verb action before reading the main text. In the analysed texts, various uses of non-actual present tense are observed in connection with making the text more attractive, encouraging the reader to read the full article, and portraying a negative image of the celebrities who are mentioned in the material. The manipulative effect is achieved through the use of the present tense instead of the future tense, the use of expressive verbs in the present tense, the use of verb forms that can be interpreted as either present or past tense, the use of aggressive vocabulary, and the use of a colon followed by a commentary section.

The article aims to answer the question: is there any correlation between the temporality and the genre affiliation of media texts? And, if it is a case: how does it manifest itself in the structure of media texts? The research is carried out on the material of modern frequency genres selected from German and Ukrainian newspapers. In the study we use the Сhi-Square-Test and the coefficient of Chuprov. The analysis revealed a correlation between the temporality and the genre affiliation in both media cultures. In news genres the past tense dominates, the present tense is less used and occasionally the forms of the future tense occur. In media text-interviews, on the contrary, the present tense dominates, the past and future tense forms are less represented. In the analytical genre the present tense dominates, followed by verb forms in past and future tenses. In the structure of German and Ukrainian news genres the following algorithm can be traced: in the lead – present (frequently), past (less frequently) tenses, in the body – past, present, and future tenses, in the final part – past, present, and future tenses. The interview-texts are characterized by the following sequence of tense use: in the lead – present and past tenses, in the body – present and past tenses, in the final part – present, past, and future tenses. For the analytical genre, the following algorithm is inherent: in the lead – present and past tenses, in the body – present, past, and future tenses. According to the statistical calculations, statistically significant results were obtained for the past tense in the German news items, for the present tense – in the German text-interviews, and for the future tense – in the Ukrainian text-interviews.