The Old Irish conjunct particle (‑)ro‑ in verbal compounds with the lexical preverb ar‑

The article deals with the use of simplex and compound (prefixed) verbs in narrative text. Main clauses comprising finite verb forms in the past and in the past habitual tense are examined in an attempt to establish to what extent simplex and compound verbs exhibit aspect oppositions, and whether a correlation exists between the occurrence of simplex vs. compound verbs and distinct textual units. The investigation shows that although simple and compound verbs in Lithuanian are not in direct aspect opposition to each other, in the background text portions most of the verbs are prefixless past tense forms or habitual forms, whereas in the plot-advancing text portions, the vast majority of verbs are compound verbs in the simple past tense.

Compound verbs, or Fukugoudoushi in Japanese, are unique verbs formed by combining two or more verbs or free morphemes. The Japanese language has around 2,700 compound verbs used daily. According to Morita (1991)'s survey in "Reikai Kokugo Jiten," 11.4% of the documented words are verbs, with compound verbs accounting for 39.29%. Compound verb proficiency presents three hurdles, according to Matsuda (2004). These problems include comprehending the variables that control compound verb combination, distinguishing the nuanced meaning differences between single and compound verbs, and designing effective learning strategies to help achieve compound verb acquisition. In this study, researchers used written assessments, questionnaires, and interviews to determine the factors that affect Fukugoudoushi comprehension and how to remedy them. According to test results, students' difficulty understanding compound verb semantics can be categorized into the following categories:1) Compound verbs encompassing acquired and unacquired information. 2) Verb compounds with different frequency in spoken and written language. 3. Compound verbs for physical or intangible notions. The methods for understanding compound verbs are: Three compound verb interpretation strategies exist. First, understand each verb individually, starting with 1 and then 2. The noun nearest to a compound verb might also indicate its meaning. The second way to interpret compound verbs is to look at the sentence as a whole. Finally, the third method infers compound verb meanings from known verbs.

This paper explores the complex relationship between morphological productivity and the high frequency of words in English.  It delves into the theoretical underpinnings of these concepts, their empirical manifestations, and their significance in linguistics and cognitive science. By examining key studies and theories in the field, this paper aims to shed light on the complex interplay between morphological productivity and word frequency, offering insights into language acquisition, processing, and evolution. The paper also analyses the high frequency and the morphological productivity of adjective and verb compounds in EFL written contexts (Legal English context). The instruments used in this paper were research papers written by SEEU EFL students. A quantitative analysis of the high frequency and morphological productivity of compounds was performed using this dataset. Also, the correlation between morphological productivity and high frequency is being elaborated. The high-frequency list of compounds was calculated based on the compounds that appeared more than once in the analysed corpus. Whereas hapax legomenon was the quantitative indicator used to assess the output of the compounding patterns. The participants involved in this study were 35 undergraduate Law students at South East European University in Tetovo and Skopje, Republic of North Macedonia. The participants were attending the following courses: Level 5, Legal English 1 and Legal English 2. Findings imply that adjective compounds are more morphologically productive compared to verb compounds. Correspondingly, verb compounds are less morphologically productive however they are identified as highly frequent compounds compared to adjective compounds in the analysed corpus. Keywords: high frequency; morphological productivity; adjective compounds; verb compounds; Legal English; corpus.

(Title: Comparison of Compounds Verbs -Kiru and -Nuku as Perfective Aspects Markers in Japanese) Compound verbs -kiru and -nuku are known as markers of perfective aspects that express the meaning of completion. This study aims to describe the similarities and differences in the meanings of compounds verbs -kiru and -nuku as markers of perfective aspects. The method used in this research is descriptive method. As a result of the study it was found that even though they stated the meaning of completion, the compound verb -kiru had a focus on the end point when the main part separated, while compound verb -nuku had a focus on the process. Besides adverb which follows the compound verb -kiru and -nuku is not the same. Compound verb -kiru followed by adverb saigo made and subete, whereas compound verb -nuku is followed by adverb akumade, tetteiteki, ikkan shite, hitosuji ni, tokoton, and dokomademo.

(Title: Compound Verbs -Hajimeru, -Dasu, -Kakeru as An Inchoative Aspects Marker in Japanese Language) Compound verb -hajimeru, -dasu, and -kakeruare known as marker of inchoative aspects that express the beginning of a state. This study aims to describe the structure and meaning of the three compound verbs in order to be able to use the three markers of this aspect in the right situation. The method used in this research is descriptive method. As a result of the study it was found that the compound verb -hajimeru compound were used to express the beginning of an activity or event in general in Japanese; compound verb -dasu is used to express the beginning of an activity that occurs suddenly; while the compound verb -kakeru states that activity will begin in a moment, or states a moment after an activity begin .

This study investigates how Persian compound verbs are processed in the mental lexicon, through which we can infer how they are stored, organized, and accessed. The study focuses on investigating Persian compound verbs in light of psycholinguistic theories on polymorphemic word processing as well as linguistic theories of complex predicates. The psycholinguistic section details three experiments addressing the following three research questions: (1) whether compound verb constituents show significant priming in the masked-priming paradigm; (2) whether priming effects are constrained by semantic transparency; and (3) whether priming effects are due to morphological relatedness. This study revealed several findings: (1) compound verbs in Persian are decomposed into their constituents at early stages of processing, (2) at early stages of processing, decomposition is based on purely orthographic similarity, (3) although both transparent and opaque compound constituents were facilitated while processing, transparency had an impact on processing in the early stages of processing. Finally, the findings seem to support a parallel input effect or competing alternative effect for the verbal constituent of the transparent compound verb, as reflected in the slower facilitation for the verbal constituent compared to the nominal constituent. In theoretical studies on Persian complex predicates, the compound verb formation can be either lexical or syntactic. The overall evidence reflected in the linguistic data for Persian complex predicates presented in this dissertation as well as the results of the experimental studies carried out in this research seem to point towards lexical compounding in Persian compound verb formation. The evidence comes from (1) the nominalization of the compound, i.e. the possibility of using the compound verb as a noun; (2) the atelicity feature, i.e. the possibility of using the compound verb after the progressive expression dar haale ‘in the process of’, which indicates an incomplete action; and (3) the nonreferentiality of the nominal constituent in the compound verb, i.e. the nominal constituent cannot be followed by a pronoun that refers to it. On the other hand, the results of the experimental studies reported in this dissertation seem to support a lexical approach to compound verbs in Persian. The technique used in these experimental studies was masked priming paradigm, which investigates the prelexical and lexical processing. The results reveal constituent priming effects under masked priming technique. This indicates that Persian compound verb constituents are accessed at the prelexical stage of processing. Syntactic calculations are said to be done at later stages of processing. Therefore, the early processing of compound verb constituents leads us to the argument for the lexicality of Persian compound verbs.

This article analyzes compound verbs of modern Japanese language belonging to the reciprocal and joint action group expressing quantitative meaning. It also discusses the term ‘compound verb’ and its understanding in Russian and foreign linguistics. The compound verb is a verb in which from the left side a nominal, verbal or adjective component may be added to a verb functioning as a second component of the compound verb, from the right side – the auxiliary verb suru ‘to do’. We suppose that the compound verb is a verb combining two verbal components. The first component has the form of a connective form of the verb, and the second one is a verb having a full word inflectional paradigm. Components 合う -au and 合わせる -awaseru are used as affixes in analyzed compound verbs. Compound verbs with reciprocal meaning with component 合う -au express subjective reciprocal meaning and suppose existence of two participants of action. Compound verbs with joint action meaning with component 合う -au can express an indefinite quantity of subjects of action with the help of using adverbs or the appropriate lexicon as the subject of a sentence. The second component 合う -au easily adjoins to the verbs implying existence of a partner and doesn’t join to verbs which have a strong meaning of individuality and separateness. The second component 合わせる -awaseru partially keeps its own lexical meaning and the compound verb overall has an objective reciprocal meaning and expresses the quantity of subjects or objects. Compound verbs with component 合わせる -awaseru have the following meanings: 1. Combination of two subjects or two items. In this group as a first component the verbs with meaning ‘joint, adding’ and verbs with meaning ‘sudden joint action of partners’ are often used. 2. Adding one subject to another, one item to another. Compound verb overall expresses meaning of the result of action. 3. Adaptation to some circumstances, comparison. Conclusion is made based on the comparison of some items.

This study presents a related problem about the compound verbs in the Banjar Hulu language. Banjar language is the language used by the people of Indragiri Hilir Regency Riau. At present the state of the Banjar Hulu language is contaminated with modern culture and technology. Therefore, an in-depth study of the language of Banjar Hulu is needed. The problem that is examined is related to the form of the compound verb Banjar Hulu. The purpose of this study was to describe and explain in detail about the compound verbs in the Banjar Hulu language. This research is a type of field research using descriptive method. The research data is in the form of words spoken by the informant, with competent involvement data collection techniques. Data validation is done by triangulating the source by analyzing data regarding the original form and basic form. The results of this study are the discovery of the first basic compound verbs (a) basic compound verbs with the second noun component, (b) compound verbs with the first component adjectives, (c) basic compound verbs with the second component adjectives, (d) basic compound verbs with the first component adverb, (e) basic compound verb with both verb components. The two affiliated compound verbs; (a) affiliated compound verbs with the base of the components, (b) affixed compound verbs with the base of the free form, (c) affixed compound verbs with the two beraphyx components. The three compound verbs repeated.

Recognition of human activities is an essential field in computer vision. The most human activity consists of the interaction between humans and objects. Many successful works have been done on human-object interaction (HOI) recognition and achieved acceptable results in recent years. Still, they are fully supervised and need to train labeled data for all HOIs. Due to the enormous space of human-object interactions, listing and providing the training data for all possible categories is costly and impractical. We propose an approach for scaling human-object interaction recognition in video data through the zero-shot learning technique to solve this problem. Our method recognizes a verb and an object from the video and makes an HOI class. Recognition of the verbs and objects instead of HOIs allows identifying a new combination of verbs and objects. So, a new HOI class can be identified, which is not seen by the recognizer system. We introduce a neural network architecture that can understand and represent the video data. The proposed system learns verbs and objects from available training data at the training phase and can identify the verb-object pairs in a video at test time. So, the system can identify the HOI class with different combinations of objects and verbs. Also, we propose to use lateral information for combining the verbs and the objects to make valid verb-object pairs. It helps to prevent the detection of rare and probably wrong HOIs. The lateral information comes from word embedding techniques. Furthermore, we propose a new feature aggregation method for aggregating extracted high-level features from video frames before feeding them to the classifier. We illustrate that this feature aggregation method is more effective for actions that include multiple subactions. We evaluated our system by recently introduced Charades challengeable dataset, which has lots of HOI categories in videos. We show that our proposed system can detect unseen HOI classes in addition to the acceptable recognition of seen types. Therefore, the number of classes identifiable by the system is greater than the number of classes used for training.

The semantic combination and generation do not always obey Frege’s Principle. In many cases, the meaning of the whole structure is beyond the sum of its constituents’ meaning. Under the guideline of the generative lexicon theory, through retrieving relevant corpora, this paper investigates the collocation of Chinese verb “写”(xiě, write) and nouns on the basis of qualia roles, semantic types and relevant compositional mechanisms, and illustrates that the combination of the verb “xiě” and nouns is complex. Besides, irregular objects of the verb “xiě” will be discussed. Qualia roles can provide a new explanation for the irregular objects of the verb “xiě”.

The verbs and the compound verbs are the words that plays the most important part in the sentence, it is possible to be as the simple and compound predicate or nominal predicate. The aim of this paper is to analyses the compound verbs between Albanian, English and German languages and it’s consisted of at least two or more bases as in Albanian: buzëqesh, duartrokas, udhëheq or in English: blackmail, outgrow, overtake, undertake, ill-treat. Compounding is the new word-formation and between Albanian, German and English it has full contrast. So, sometimes it is possible to be the same with structure, but usually it has the contrast as in the first table in this paper. The defamation for compound and “a new meaning comes out which is very different from the meanings of the words in isolation” (Millaku, 2017). The verbs as a compound word (verbs) in Alb. language are few. Among them, the main place is occupied by type-defining compounds as Adverb + Verb = compound verb, as: mirëkuptoj (Eng. I understand the; ger. Ich verstehe das), mirëpres (Eng. welcome, hospitality as adjective and in Ger. Willkommen ar in Alb. mirë se vini); keqkuptoj (Eng. misconceive, misunderstand, misapprehend); keqinterpretoj (Ger. falsch interpretieren), keqtrajtoj (Eng. mistreat, Ger. Misshandeln); drejtpeshoj (Eng. poise, Ger. Haltung or in Albanian qëndrim); drejtshkruaj (Eng; write right or in Alb shkruaj drejt, in Ger. Buchstabiere es richtig or it is possible in Alb. shkruajni saktë) and in Alb. drejtvendos, bashkëjetoj, bashkëpunoj, bashkëveproj, parapëlqej, parashikoj, mirëmbaj, parapaguaj, parandaloj etj. Noun + verb = compound verb: buzëqesh, duartrokas, udhëheq, rrethshkruaj etj. Pronoun + verb = compoun verb: vetëvendos, vetëveproj, vetëmbrohem, vetëkuptohet, vetëdrejtoj or in English: blackmail, outgrow, overtake, undertake, ill-treat. Compound verbs from Eng. to Ger: Adjective stem + verb stem: white + wash = to whitewash (Alb. për të zbardhur); frei + geben = freigeben; Adverb stem + verb stem: broad + cast = to broadcast (Alb. për të transmetuar); hinüber + blicken = hinüberblicken. Received: 19 February 2025 / Accepted: 19 June 2025 / Published: 05 July 2025

The systematic investigation and study of individual grammatical issues facilitate a more scientific and comprehensible approach to describing, analyzing, and instructing language.In Persian, verbs are categorized into five structural types.Compound verbs, aside from their syntactic function in a sentence, have long been a topic of contention among linguists due to their unique characteristics and distinguishing features.This extensive research, conducted over several years and based on a comprehensive corpus of 5500 compound verbs, delineates their attributes, classifications, and varied usage within the Persian language.The emphasis lies on the selection, application, and prevalence of these verbs, rather than on their potential constructions.Naturally, the actual number of compound verbs surpasses this figure, with novel compound verbs being coined depending on the context and communication needs.The data from this corpus is representative of over ninety percent of the compound verbs in contemporary Persian.Some of these verbs exhibit versatility, being adaptable to different contexts in diverse forms not exhaustively listed.By synthesizing the insights of prominent grammarians and linguists, this study elucidates the characteristics, circumstances, and applications of compound verbs.The findings underscore that compound verbs, owing to their amalgamative nature, are the most prevalent verb type, showcasing a wide array of combinations where numerous nouns and adjectives are fused with verbs.This type, characterized by its dynamic quality, underscores the integrative essence of the Persian language.A key method for identifying these verbs is through independent analysis of each sentence, particularly as many new concepts and foreign terms are integrated into Persian through verb combinations.Compound verbs can consist of more than two words and structurally resemble a blend of noun/adjective + verb, conveying a unified meaning.The formation of compound verbs involves a mix of simple, prefix, and compound verbs, totaling 84 verbs, with "Kardan" and "Shodan" being the most frequently used.Furthermore, many compound verbs

Vocabulary education in foreign language learning is mainly done through textbooks or dictionaries, so it remains as the acquisition of fragmentary knowledge and most of it proceeds with memorization of individual words. However if lexical knowledge is approached at the sentence level and educated, practical language use can be experienced and can be usefully used in real life. In particular, in the case of compound verbs formed by combining two elements, the form, meaning, and syntactic change are changed, so care must be taken in their use. ‘Meokda’ is a single word, but sometimes combined with other words to create a diverse vocabulary. In addition, it is a frequently used vocabulary related to food in everyday life, and it has been differentiated into various meanings by combining with other words, and the range of its use has widened. So, for practical use, it is necessary to look at the form, meaning, and syntactic. Therefore, in this study, considering these points, we tried to present an educational method centering on the food compound verb. When 'meokda' is combined with 'noun', most of the preceding nouns were [-eating], and even after being synthesized, most of them had other meanings unrelated to 'eating'. However, when the preceding element is a verb, it was found to be a compound verb that has a syntactic structure similar to 'meokda' and not a compound verb. In addition, it was confirmed that various types of compound verbs such as compound verbs with various arguments under the influence of preceding verbs and compound verbs in which the semantic role of the target argument plays an important role were found. Considering this point, an educational method was proposed to examine the meaning and syntactic structure together so that compound verbs could be formed into sentences rather than understood as individual words and connected to actual use.

The goal of the present thesis was to investigate the production of code-switched utterances in bilinguals’ speech production. This study investigates the availability of grammatical-category information during bilingual language processing. The specific aim is to examine the processes involved in the production of Persian-English bilingual compound verbs (BCVs). A bilingual compound verb is formed when the nominal constituent of a compound verb is replaced by an item from the other language. In the present cases of BCVs the nominal constituents are replaced by a verb from the other language. The main question addressed is how a lexical element corresponding to a verb node can be placed in a slot that corresponds to a noun lemma. This study also investigates how the production of BCVs might be captured within a model of BCVs and how such a model may be integrated within incremental network models of speech production. In the present study, both naturalistic and experimental data were used to investigate the processes involved in the production of BCVs. In the first part of the present study, I collected 2298 minutes of a popular Iranian TV program and found 962 code-switched utterances. In 83 (8%) of the switched cases, insertions occurred within the Persian compound verb structure, hence, resulting in BCVs. As to the second part of my work, a picture-word interference experiment was conducted. This study addressed whether in the case of the production of Persian-English BCVs, English verbs compete with the corresponding Persian compound verbs as a whole, or whether English verbs compete with the nominal constituents of Persian compound verbs only. Persian-English bilinguals named pictures depicting actions in 4 conditions in Persian (L1). In condition 1, participants named pictures of action using the whole Persian compound verb in the context of its English equivalent distractor verb. In condition 2, only the nominal constituent was produced in the presence of the light verb of the target Persian compound verb and in the context of a semantically closely related English distractor verb. In condition 3, the whole Persian compound verb was produced in the context of a semantically unrelated English distractor verb. In condition 4, only the nominal constituent was produced in the presence of the light verb of the target Persian compound verb and in the context of a semantically unrelated English distractor verb. The main effect of linguistic unit was significant by participants and items. Naming latencies were longer in the nominal linguistic unit compared to the compound verb (CV) linguistic unit. That is, participants were slower to produce the nominal constituent of compound verbs in the context of a semantically closely related English distractor verb compared to producing the whole compound verbs in the context of a semantically closely related English distractor verb. The three-way interaction between version of the experiment (CV and nominal versions), linguistic unit (nominal and CV linguistic units), and relation (semantically related and unrelated distractor words) was significant by participants. In both versions, naming latencies were longer in the semantically related nominal linguistic unit compared to the response latencies in the semantically related CV linguistic unit. In both versions, naming latencies were longer in the semantically related nominal linguistic unit compared to response latencies in the semantically unrelated nominal linguistic unit. Both the analysis of the naturalistic data and the results of the experiment revealed that in the case of the production of the nominal constituent of BCVs, a verb from the other language may compete with a noun from the base language, suggesting that grammatical category does not necessarily provide a constraint on lexical access during the production of the nominal constituent of BCVs. There was a minimal context in condition 2 (the nominal linguistic unit) in which the nominal constituent was produced in the presence of its corresponding light verb. The results suggest that generating words within a context may not guarantee that the effect of grammatical class becomes available. A model is proposed in order to characterize the processes involved in the production of BCVs. Implications for models of bilingual language production are discussed.

The study of compound verbs in English poses numerous problems, among which even their recognition as compounds on grounds of their derivation. Resulting from at least three different word-formation patterns, compound verbs constitute a heterogeneous class of complex lexemes. Their status as actual compound lexemes invites the differentiation between compounding as a word-formation process and compounds as a special class of lexemes. Even within the latter, compound verbs display marked properties at least in relation to the inability of standard classifications of compounds to capture and compromise their lexical uniformity and their heterogeneous origin. The adoption of a position in which it is argued that compound verbs in English constitute a constructional idiom and the application of scalar analytical notions which combine word-formationist and lexical-semantic accounts cast in the general framework of the cognitive linguistic enterprise yield informative generalizations concerning the linguistic and conceptual properties of compound verbs in English. In view of Radden and Dirven's (2007: 41-46) claim that we do not need "more than two basic types of conceptual units things and relations" in order to establish linguistically relevant conceptual distinctions, compound verbs pose a problem for neat dichotomous treatment as they very often both conceptually and in terms of form include a "thing" (e.g. to flat-hunt, to house-sit, to fellow-feel, to case-harden, etc.) and thus come closer to a "situation" than to a "relation". Exactly because of the fact that compound verbs profile/perspectivize "situations" as "relations", they function as special construal mechanisms and as such do not fit the subordinate/coordinate distinction, because they name situations. In view of the above the paper treats compound verbs as a constructional idiom whose analysis necessitates the recognition of the role of conceptual conversion mechanisms, scalar classificatory and interpretative criteria and uniform lexico-semantic treatment.