The Microcirculation in Inflammation

Abstract

The sections in this article are: 1 Historical Background 11 Parts of the historical background section are based on “History of Inflammation Research” in Ref. (1). 1 Historical Background 2 Anatomy of the Microcirculation: Arterioles, Capillaries, and Venules 3 Special Circulations 4 Types and Ontogeny of White Blood Cells 22 The assistance of Matthew Stark in writing this section is acknowledged. 4 Types and Ontogeny of White Blood Cells 4.1 Myeloid differentiation 4.2 Neutrophils 4.3 Monocytes 4.4 Tissue-resident macrophages and dendritic cells 4.5 Mast cells 4.6 Eosinophils and basophils 4.7 Lymphocytes 4.7.1 T cells 4.7.2 B cells 4.7.3 Natural killer cells 5 Endothelial Cells in Inflammation 5.1 Endothelial heterogeneity 5.2 Endothelial surface layer 5.3 Endothelial activation 5.4 Endothelial permeability in inflammation 6 Integrated View: The Microcirculation in Inflammation 6.1 Vasomotor responses and consequences for perfusion, blood flow, shear stress 6.2 Classes of chemoattractants 6.3 Inflammatory chemokines and their receptors 6.4 Locally acting cytokines 6.5 Systemic cytokines and chemokines 6.6 Complement activation and its regulation 6.7 Eicosanoids 6.8 Other inflammatory mediators 7 Leukocyte Adhesion Cascade – General Paradigm and Exceptions 8 Leukocyte–Endothelial Interactions 33 Parts of this section are modified from Ref. (252). 8 Leukocyte–Endothelial Interactions 8.1 Leukocyte integrins 8.2 Integrin-associated molecules 8.3 Leukocyte immunoglobulin-like adhesion receptors 8.4 L-selectin 8.5 PSGL-1 (CD162) 9 Endothelial Adhesion Molecules 9.1 P-selectin 9.2 E-selectin 9.3 Endothelial immunoglobulin-like adhesion molecules 9.4 Other endothelial adhesion molecules 9.5 Signaling through adhesion molecules 9.6 Soluble adhesion molecules 10 Chemokine-Mediated Arrest of Rolling Leukocytes 10.1 Arrest chemokines 44 Parts of this section are adapted from Ref. (300). 10.1 Arrest chemokines 10.2 Differential activation of integrins 10.3 Intracellular signaling mediating arrest 11 Transmigration 11.1 Chemotactic transmigration 55 Parts of this section adapted from Ref. (262). 11.1 Chemotactic transmigration 11.2 Transmigration driven by endothelial cell activation 11.3 Paracellular route 11.4 Transcellular route 11.5 Migration through the endothelial basement membrane and pericyte sheath 11.6 Transmigration of monocytes, T cells, eosinophils 12 Migration in the Interstitial Space 13 Microvascular Damage Secondary to Inflammation 14 Oxygen- and Nitrogen-Derived Radicals 14.1 Antimicrobial activities 14.2 Anti- and pro-inflammatory effects of NO 14.3 Tissue damage by superoxide and other oxygen-derived radicals 15 Regulation of Inflammatory Responses 15.1 Toll-like receptors 15.2 Other pattern recognition receptors 15.3 Regulation of inflammation by macrophages and dendritic cells 15.4 Regulation of Inflammation by T cells 15.5 Cytokines regulating inflammation 16 Interaction Between Inflammation and Platelets 66 Parts of this section are from Ref. (252). 16 Interaction Between Inflammation and Platelets 16.1 Platelet chemokines 16.2 Platelet chemokine receptors 16.3 Other platelet G-protein-coupled receptors 16.4 Platelet cytokines 16.5 Small molecules secreted by platelets 16.6 Platelet-leukocyte interactions 16.7 Platelet–endothelial interactions 16.8 Enhanced leukocyte adhesion by platelets 17 Interaction Between Inflammation and Coagulation 17.1 Tissue factor 17.2 Proteases of the coagulation cascade 17.3 Fibrinolysis 17.4 Coagulation- and fibrinolysis-induced effects on inflammation 17.5 Inflammation-induced effects on coagulation and fibrinolysis 18 Resolution of Inflammation 19 Future Work 19.1 Organ-specific inflammatory processes 19.2 Homeostatic Regulation 19.3 Interactions Between the Innate and Adaptive Immune System 19.4 Pro- and Anti-Inflammatory Strategies 20 Acknowledgments