The Meat of the Matter: Towards a Conceptual Understanding of the “Meat Question” in the Fin-de-Siècle Romanov Empire

The study of issues of the history of the formation and development of branch book printing in the territory of Ukraine is conditioned by the need to study the origins of modern information resources from various branches of natural sciences, as well as insufficient coverage and analytical processing of the array of old prints and manuscripts of the 17th–18th centuries natural and scientific subjects, in particular from the sciences of living nature. The problems of the origin, creation, distribution, and functioning of life sciences publications that were printed on the territory of Ukraine in the 18th century, and the characteristics of their importance as a separate phenomenon in the development of science, culture, and enlightenment in Ukrainian society, have not yet been comprehensively studied. In Viktor Sokolov’s article “Information about living nature and the spread of natural and scientific knowledge in publications and manuscripts in Ukraine in the 18th century” on the basis of the analysis of primary sources and materials of scientific publications, the peculiarities of the development of natural and scientific book printing in the territory of Ukraine, the formation of the repertoire of publications and the functioning of books from various branches of science about living nature in the 18th century are highlighted. Not pretending to fully study all aspects of the study of publications and manuscripts about living nature in Ukraine in the 18th century, the author set the main goal of researching the historical conditions of their creation, distribution and functioning; to determine the main trends and features of the development of book printing of works that described and characterized the phenomena of living nature, as well as to reveal the significance of individual books of the proposed topic in the scientific and cultural and educational development of Ukraine in the 18th century. The research methodology consists in applying both general scientific study methods (description, comparison, analogy, deduction, induction, analysis, etc.) and historical (historical-comparative, historical-typological, chronological, etc.) research methods. The functional method was used in the study of the role of the natural science book and the activity of printers. The study of the book publishing repertoire was carried out using analytical-thematic and structural-typological methods. Statistical and bibliographic methods were also used in the work, which helped to consistently reveal the functions and dynamics of books that provided information from various branches of life sciences. The scientific novelty of the work is that, for the first time, an array of publications and manuscripts on living nature sciences, which were created or functioned on the territory of Ukraine in the 18th century, was analyzed; the genre-typological and thematic composition of the mentioned publications was investigated (on the example of the characteristics of individual books of the mentioned topic, their content, composition of authors, polygraphic design, centers of creation, etc. were analyzed); the functional purpose and features of the use of books from various branches of life science are characterized; their importance in the spread of natural and scientific knowledge and enlightenment in Ukraine in the 18th century is clarified. Conclusions. It was established that the socio-practical needs of everyday life, education, science, and cultural development prompted the emergence and distribution of natural science books, in particular on the sciences of living nature, and industry book printing in general, simultaneously contributing to the formation of various branches of natural sciences, including from biology (for example, such as physiology, microbiology, histology, etc.), determined their further development in the future. It has been proven that book printing from certain branches of scientific and practical activity, in particular from medicine, veterinary medicine, and economics, had a greater demand than other publications on natural and scientific topics and almost always brought profit to the publishers. Works from the specified fields of knowledge, which had information from various branches of life sciences, were willingly published by printing houses of educational institutions, monasteries, official and private printing houses, because, in addition to profit, there was an acute practical necessity and a certain social need in their printing. It was found that, despite the fact that the majority of books on this topic corresponded to the nature of local needs, some publications are gaining international importance (for example, the works of J.-K. Gaur, J. A. Wolstein, etc.). It is substantiated that on the territory of Ukraine in the 18th century publications that contained information from various branches of wildlife sciences were designed for a wide range of readers: students, teachers, specialists and educated people of the Ukrainian population at that time; they were distinguished by an accessible, popular presentation of the material, a practical orientation, and a breadth of coverage of the material. Among natural and scientific publications, by genre and typological features, the largest number is recommendation and practical advisors. A certain number of publications can be classified as educational and scientific literature. It was found that in the second half of the 18th century in Ukraine, works on botany, zoology, and other living nature sciences by researchers such as Malpighi, Bachmann, Haller, Buffon, Linnaeus, etc. were read by scientists, teachers, students, cultural and educational figures, and the educated population. However, books were the most common among natural science works at that time from medicine and veterinary medicine. Among the medical publications that were printed in Ukraine in the 18th century, in addition to medical advisors, the most published works dealt with the treatment of smallpox, measles, apoplexy, various infectious diseases, and obstetrics. Among publications on veterinary medicine, printers gave more preference to works on horse breeding. It has been proven that natural science books in Ukraine in the 18th century, in particular from various branches of living nature sciences, were one of the most important factors in the development of scientific thought, changes in people’s worldview, and had a direct impact on real life. It is motivated by the fact that domestic book printing on natural sciences, in particular publications from various branches of life sciences, satisfied public needs in this literature and, in part, reflected the level of development of one or another branch of science in Ukraine. It was revealed that in the 18th century in Ukraine, scientific research in various branches of science about living organisms was reduced mainly to the accumulation and description of various information about the flora and fauna of the country. In particular, industrial and hunting animals, agricultural pests, economic and medicinal plants were studied, the description and characteristics of which had a practical direction. It was revealed that the thematic and genre-typological syncretism of publications reflected the corresponding state of development of science, a certain uncertainty of the target purpose, however, with the development of production, various spheres of education, science and social and practical activities of people, the development of the very types, types and genres of publications gradually took place. However, among natural and scientific publications of the 18th century, due to the syncretism of genre-typological features, it becomes problematic to separate, for example, scientific works from textbooks. Moreover, in such sciences as medicine and veterinary medicine, where there was a lot of information from various branches of knowledge about living nature, most printed books were at the same time practical advisors, since it was the practical needs of life that prompted the development, for example, such branches of living nature sciences as physiology, microbiology, histology, etc. It was established that in the 18th century progressive scientists of Ukraine were aware of the achievements of science in the same way as the cultural figures of Western Europe. In the original, they got acquainted with the works of Buffon, Linnaeus, Newton, Galileo, Copernicus, Leibniz and other European scientists, as evidenced by the catalogs of libraries of educational institutions and monasteries, descriptions of book collections of private individuals (scientists, teachers, Cossack elders, etc.), letters and other documents. If by the 18th century scientific literature entered Ukraine in the form of translations made in Poland into Latin or Polish, already from the second half of the 18th century, new cultural currents and scientific achievements of advanced European countries begin to spread much faster in Ukraine in the form of works in the original language than in the previous period. Of course, due to the lack of independence and certain historical conditions that developed in the country in the 18th century, the distribution of the latest Western European publications, to a certain extent, «compensated» for the insufficient development of science, education, and natural science book printing in Ukraine compared to the advanced countries of Europe.

Political attention to antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has never been greater. Governments worldwide are concerned that AMR threatens to undo modern medical achievements with the spectre of a post antibiotic era in which commonplace infections, once eminently treatable, become nontreatable causes of serious morbidity and mortality 1. With suggestions that AMR and multi-drug resistant organisms are as important as climate change and could cast the world back into the dark ages of medicine, ranking alongside terrorism as matters of national risk 2, 3, the political landscape on this subject has been clearly set. Concerns about AMR and its health impact are, of course, not new and began at almost the same time as the introduction of antimicrobials. In 1945, just after the introduction of penicillin as a therapeutic agent in humans and animals, Fleming warned in his Nobel Prize acceptance speech that misuse of antimicrobials could result in bacterial resistance. This prediction rapidly became true with the discovery of each new class of antimicrobial quickly followed by the appearance of resistance to it. By the 1960s there was widespread realisation, and acceptance in the scientific community and lay press, that antimicrobial use (and misuse) resulted in rapid selection for resistance against all classes of antimicrobials. What is new, and has changed the political and regulatory landscape for AMR completely, is the realisation that science is not able to out-pace the microbes. There have been no completely new classes of antimicrobials discovered and brought to market since the 1980s, perhaps not surprising given the relatively small range of bacterial targets and the rapid rate of antimicrobial discovery during the ‘golden age’ from the mid 1940s onwards 4. Although there are some rays of hope, for example the recently reported new compound ‘teixobactin’ 5, the pipeline for new antimicrobials is practically dry. In other words, the solutions to AMR must come from within the medical, veterinary and animal industry sectors by addressing the underlying causes of, and changing the therapeutic approaches to, infectious disease. The political and scientific view that antimicrobials can no longer be regarded as the panacea or ‘magic bullet’ capable of eradicating infectious disease is widely accepted, and it is now clear that the human and animal health care sectors need to respond accordingly. A major challenge for the politicians is that there are still significant gaps in the surveillance data required to fully understand the drivers of AMR in both humans and animals 6, 7 and, critically, to measure the effects of interventional measures to reduce AMR. It is therefore not surprising that scientific opinion continues to be divided on practically every key question about AMR except that it is now a serious global problem causing significant economic loss with welfare, morbidity and mortality impacts in humans and animals. Antimicrobial resistance is a natural phenomenon: bacteria produce antimicrobial substances as part of their repertoire to compete in the struggle for colonisation, space and nutrients. Resistance therefore existed long before the introduction of antimicrobial drugs: the effect of using antimicrobials has been to accelerate AMR through classical selective pressure. That this has happened in both veterinary and human populations of bacteria is not disputed; the evidence for interconnection of AMR in these two populations is, however, inconclusive and is the subject of continuing political and scientific debate with contradictory evidence produced by both sides 8-10. It does appear that antimicrobial use in animals increases AMR in animal bacteria and that treating people with antimicrobials increases AMR in human bacteria. However, current scientific evidence does not allow definitive assessment of whether reducing antimicrobial use in animals has reduced AMR in medical pathogens. The extent to which AMR in populations of animal bacteria threatens public health therefore remains uncertain. The evidence for resistance in animal bacteria acting as genetic reservoirs of resistance for transfer to bacteria of public health importance is also inconclusive. Even for zoonotic bacteria such as Salmonella typhimurium DT104, the links between animal and human bacterial populations have become less clear with the application of sophisticated molecular typing bacterial methods and population genetics adding new complexity to the AMR debate 11. However, the lack of conclusive evidence notwithstanding, the prevailing political and regulatory opinion continues to be that antimicrobial use, and associated AMR, in animals is a driver of AMR in medical pathogens and that controlling veterinary prescription of antimicrobials will help safeguard public health. The ongoing political and public health scrutiny of veterinary use of antimicrobials is not surprising and the assumption that veterinary antimicrobial use contributes to, or is perhaps even directly the cause of, AMR in human medicine is understandable. The fact that the classes of antimicrobials used in veterinary and human medicine are the same 12; that food-borne and other zoonotic infections provide an opportunity for transfer of resistant bacteria from animals to humans; that populations of pathogenic and nonpathogenic animal bacteria may act as genetic reservoirs of resistance for important medical pathogens, with close contact between people and companion animals, in addition to food products, providing opportunity for genetic exchange; and, perhaps most importantly from a political perspective, that in many countries around the world the total quantity (gross weight) of antimicrobials used in veterinary medicine is greater than in human medicine 13, 14, has put antimicrobial use in animals at the centre of the public health AMR debate. When combined with the use of antimicrobials for disease prevention at herd or flock level and, in around half of the world's countries, for growth promotion, it is little wonder that antimicrobial use in animals has resulted in sustained political concern over the contribution that veterinarians and the animal sector in general may be making to the growing crisis of antimicrobial resistance in humans, with frequent calls for restriction or even banning of veterinary use of antimicrobials. Despite numerous political recommendations that coordinated, overarching surveillance of AMR is implemented at national and international level 15, 16 there are still relatively few examples of harmonised and integrated surveillance in humans and animals that allow comparison of data. Examples include The National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System (NARMS) in the USA, Canadian Integrated Program for Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance (CIPARS) in Canada, Japanese Veterinary Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System (JVARM) in Japan and several European schemes including Danish Integrated Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring and Research Programme (DANMAP) (Denmark), NORM-VET (Norway), Swedish Veterinary Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring (SVARM) (Sweden) and NethMap/Monitoring of Antimicrobial Resistance and Antibiotic usage in Animals in the Netherlands (MARAN) (the Netherlands). At EU level, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) monitor AMR in the food chain and food-borne zoonotic pathogens, but not in companion animals. In the absence of sufficient scientific evidence about AMR, in particular the key question of the impact of veterinary antimicrobial use on public health, politicians around the world have faced difficult decisions. In the absence of scientific certainty politicians have adopted the ‘precautionary principle’, allowing preventive action to be taken when there is a possibility of harm but where the scientific evidence is not sufficiently complete to allow full assessment. The result in Europe is a continuing European political focus on banning or restricting veterinary antimicrobial use, especially in the agricultural sector, and reducing the total quantities of antimicrobials used in animals. In the political and regulatory environment in the USA, the precautionary principle has been applied somewhat differently with less political appetite for banning or restricting antimicrobials 9. The first active political engagement with antimicrobial resistance occurred in 1968 in response to growing concerns over multidrug resistant Salmonella in humans and animals, with the establishment of an independent advisory committee by the UK Government chaired by Professor Michael Swann. The Swann Report 17, published in 1969, recommended restriction of the use of antimicrobials as growth promoters, which took 45 years to fully implement in Europe, and establishment of overarching monitoring of AMR in humans and animals, which has still not been implemented globally. Almost 50 years on, this report continues to set the political stage in relation to veterinary antimicrobial use and possible impacts on human health. We would do well not to lose sight of the lessons learned in the decades following its publication, specifically that sensible recommendations based on competent assessment of the available, even if incomplete, scientific evidence should not be sidelined pending collection of conclusive evidence; instead the two should progress in parallel with continuous monitoring and refinement as evidence is gathered. The global political thrust in relation to AMR in the human and animal health sectors continues to be that overuse of antimicrobials is the cause of the problem and that reducing their use is the solution. In Europe, most political effort since 1969 has been directed at the food animal sector through reducing the use of antimicrobials as growth promoters and, more recently, reducing total antimicrobial use. It was not until 2006 that a EU-wide ban on antimicrobial growth promoters was eventually implemented, completing a political process that had started four decades previously with the banning of tetracycline, penicillin and streptomycin for growth promotion in 1974, followed by complete bans of antimicrobial growth promoters in Sweden and Denmark in 1988 and 1994. Denmark also implemented restrictions on veterinary dispensing of antimicrobials; decoupling veterinary prescription of antimicrobials from supply remains on the European political agenda and, if implemented, would have significant impact on veterinary practice business models in many countries. Monitoring, and reducing, antimicrobial use has become a key global political driver. The European Medicines Agency monitors the sales of antimicrobial agents for food producing animals and horses across Europe 18 providing benchmarks against which political targets for reduction are set. In some countries governmental targets for reduction in the sales of veterinary antimicrobials have been agreed with stakeholders. For example, the Netherlands decreased sales of antimicrobials by 49% between 2010 and 2012 with further reduction targets agreed; antimicrobial sales in Scandinavia have been progressively reduced through a series of government–stakeholder agreed targets 18. Nevertheless, the estimated consumption of antimicrobials (corrected for estimated biomass) in animals continues to be greater than in humans across Europe as a whole 6. It is becoming increasingly clear, however, that the concept of overuse as the key driver of AMR may be overly simplistic 19. Antimicrobial resistance is a complex public and animal health issue and there is recognition that integrated strategies across all sectors, backed by political will, stakeholder buy-in and sufficient economic support, are required to control it 1. Although overprescribing of antimicrobials is undoubtedly an important factor, reducing their use in human medicine has not consistently resulted in reduction of resistance for key pathogen–antimicrobial combinations with examples of resistance remaining apparently stable or even increasing despite reduced antimicrobial use. The question of whether phasing out antimicrobials as growth promoters across Europe and the restrictions placed on therapeutic use of antimicrobials in Scandinavia, with associated reductions in quantities used, has resulted in a positive impact on human health continues to be the subject of scientific and political disagreement. Responsible, or ‘prudent’, use of antimicrobials has emerged as a parallel precautionary approach to the control of AMR. Initially, the political focus was on restricting veterinary use of antimicrobials used to treat multidrug resistant human pathogens presenting significant risk to public health. Since 2005 the World Health Organization has published lists of ‘critically important antimicrobials for human medicine’, ranked according their importance with the goal that their use should be restricted in all sectors to preserve their effectiveness 20. This approach has been extended by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) with the publication of a list of antimicrobials of veterinary importance which contains recommendations for restricting the use in food animals of antimicrobials that are critically important for both human and animal health 21. This list includes fluoroquinolones and third- and fourth-generation cephalosporins and forms a rational basis for responsible guidelines worldwide. There are several examples of stakeholder groups at national and international level that have responded to the AMR challenge and shown leadership in producing responsible use guidelines. In the late 1990s the UK veterinary and farming sectors established the RUMA (responsible use of medicines in agriculture) alliance and in 2005 EPRUMA (European platform for responsible use of medicines in animals) was established. Stakeholder groups have now produced a variety of responsible use guidelines for antimicrobials in veterinary practice. Examples include general guidance to veterinary practitioners from the British Veterinary Association (BVA) and the Federation of Veterinarians in Europe (FVE), guidelines on antimicrobial use in companion animal practice from the Federation of European Companion Animal Veterinary Associations (FECAVA), the British Small Animal Veterinary Association (BSAVA), the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) and in equine practice from the British Equine Veterinary Association (BEVA). Widespread adoption of responsible use guidelines in equine practice is an important goal, coupled with accurate recording of use (as, for example, already happens in Scandinavia), that will go some way to addressing political concerns about the prescription of critically important antimicrobials and cascade prescribing by veterinarians, including equine practitioners 22, 23. It is understandable, given the importance of food-borne zoonotic bacteria, that the political lens has thus far been focused mainly on the food animal sector. It is only recently that antimicrobial use in companion animals and horses has received political attention 7, 24 probably because comparatively small quantities (<10% of total quantities sold each year) of antimicrobials are used in these species 18 and because of a public health focus on food-borne pathogens. There are now recommendations that systematic international surveillance of AMR is established for companion animals and horses and a recognition that the close relationship between people and companion animals may provide new opportunities for transfer of resistance to human pathogens 7, 24. Antimicrobial resistance is now a highly important One Health issue with political impact squarely on companion animal and equine veterinary medicine; it is no longer a subject confined to the food animal sector. Antimicrobial resistance is, of course, also important for companion animal and equine health with multidrug resistant pathogens such as meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) causing clinical disease in horses and with evidence of transfer of MRSA between humans and horses 25 and of carriage in horses 26. As would be expected, therapeutic treatment of horses with antimicrobials temporarily increases the prevalence of resistant sentinel Escherichia coli, including multidrug resistance and production of extended spectrum β-lactamases 27, acting as a reminder of the impact of ‘routine’ veterinary therapy on microbial populations. The message is clear that it is time to apply common sense and sound scientific principles to address AMR in equine practice. As a minimum, further surveillance in horses is required, along with universal adoption of responsible use guidelines 28. Irrespective of the scientific uncertainties, AMR is a true One Health issue that is relevant to the equine industry. Whatever the political dimensions of this debate it is essential that the equine veterinary profession and equine industry continue to engage actively with the AMR agenda, promote public and political confidence by demonstrating leadership through responsible use of antimicrobials and monitoring of AMR, and participate in evidence-based practice.

A new era in agriculture

New Russia bears the heritage of both empires: the Romanov Empire and the Soviet Union. The chapter argues that the key problem of all discussions on the new, post-Soviet identification is the ambiguity and dissent surrounding the question of 'Russian nation' and its imperial past and heritage. This chapter analyses the historical narrative in public debates in contemporary Russia, with regard to the politics of history, historiography, and the approach adopted by society. The focus is on the following topics: remembrance of the Second World War, the Stalinist past, and the national self-perception. The author argues that one can hardly speak of the existence of a 'collective memory' in contemporary Russia because, in Russian society, there are different perspectives on how to deal with Russia's past before and after the 1917 Revolution.

This is the first comparative study of the 1890s Bicycle Boom in the Ukrainian lands, which at that time were part of the Habsburg and Romanov Empires. This article reconstructs the world of bicycle producers, retailers, advocators, consumers, and riders, focusing on local agency in the adoption of Western cycling technologies. A comparison of bicycle clubs in the Ukrainian lands of the two empires illustrates how distinct imperial, ethnic, social, and gender politics influenced the social construction of cycling technologies. This article presents a portrait of technological progress in which local enthusiasts were key drivers of innovation, whereas the two imperial states responded with regulatory measures rather than actions that would promote technological development. Although Eastern Europe was late in launching its own mass production of bicycles, the cultural phenomenon of the 1890s Bicycle Boom in the Ukrainian lands, which stimulated great enthusiasm, public debates, and new standards of bodily performance, emerged simultaneously with the boom in bicycle-producing Western societies.

To integrate recent discoveries in the cognitive neuroscience field on overall brain development, performance and energy requirements, with insight obtained on the cellular and molecular mechanisms of stimulation with food at the periphery. A clear picture emerges of the brain energy demand, its changes through life and the nutritional requirements to provide an optimally functioning intellect at any time. Of particular importance is the dynamic range resulting from differences between 'poor diet' and 'optimal diet'. On the basis of a healthy brain, the question becomes: what drives transient cognitive performance, and to what extent does food-related input from the periphery modulate cognition in general? Over the last decade, vast achievements in the understanding of chemosensory signal transduction on the tongue have been made. Most molecular receptors for various taste modalities have been identified, and the logic of their coding into the brain has been largely unravelled. Moreover, an intriguing discovery has been made that most of the known taste receptors are also expressed in the gastrointestinal tract. Brain energy supply and balanced diet are being unravelled on the molecular and cellular levels as prerequisites for proper cognitive development. With additional insight emerging into the fundamentals of sensory stimulation and perception, we are entering a scientific era that ultimately will link metabolic needs with food preferences, hedonics and healthy nutrition.

The Missing Links Between the Veterinary and Medical Fields in Saudi Arabia

There are currently both scientific and public debates surrounding Darwinism. In the scientific debate, the details of evolution are in dispute, but not the central thesis of Darwin’s theory; in the public debate, Darwinism itself is questioned. I concentrate on the public debate because of its direct impact on education in the United States. Some critics of Darwin advocate the teaching of intelligent design theory along with Darwin’s theory, and others seek to eliminate even the mention of evolution from science classes altogether. Many of these critics base their objections on the claim that non-living matter cannot give rise to living matter. After considering some of the various meanings assigned to ‘vitalism’ over the years, I argue that a considerable portion of Darwin deniers support a literal version of vitalism that is not scientifically respectable. Their position seems to be that since life cannot arise naturally, Darwin’s theory accomplishes nothing: If it can only account for life forms changing from one to another (even this is disputed by some) but not how life arose in the first place, what’s the point? I argue that there is every reason to believe that living and non-living matter differ only in degree, not in kind, and that all conversation about Darwinism should start with the assumption that abiogenesis is possible unless or until compelling evidence of its impossibility is presented. That is, I advocate a position that the burden of proof lies with those who claim “Life only comes from life.” Until that case is made, little weight should be given to their position.

Quo vadis plant biomechanics: Old wine in new bottles or an up-and-coming field of modern plant science?

A 2-year rat feeding study with genetically modified NK603 maize sparked an international scientific and public debate as well as policy responses by the European Commission. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) evaluated the study as defective based on conceptual and methodological shortcomings by retroactive application of the recommendations of its recent guidance on 90-day feeding studies. Our comparative analysis of the three relevant NK603 publications, including a 90-day feeding study of Monsanto, showed that all of them satisfy or fail to satisfy the EFSA evaluation criteria to a comparable extent; the rejection of only one of the papers is, thus, not scientifically justified. We also show that EFSA's criteria are not standard practice in 21 other rat feeding studies lasting at a minimum of 12 months. The review reveals critical double standards in the evaluation of feeding studies submitted as proof of safety for regulatory approval to EFSA. We specifically argue that the current approach to declare statistically significant differences between genetically modified organisms and its parents as ‘biologically irrelevant’ based on additional reference controls lacks scientific rigor and legal justification in the European Union (EU) system. Only recently, the EU authorities started building up an implementing system based on its own legislation and supportive of the EU approach to risk assessment in the context of technology assessment. Until these issues are resolved, we do not expect that neither the public nor the scientific debate will subside.

Status report on aquatic pollution problems in Europe

The paper by Harwell and Gentile (2006) published in this issue of Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management (IEAM) reviews the ecological significance and persistence of impacts associated with the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Reviewing the considerable body of ecological, ecotoxicological, and biological studies conducted in the years preceding the oil spill and during the 17 years after the oil spill, the authors attempt to address the question often asked following environmental catastrophes similar to this one: In the years following the Exxon Valdez oil spill, are there any remaining and continuing ecologically significant exposures or effects on the Prince William Sound ecosystem directly attributable to the oil spill? We are proud to provide the peer-reviewed forum for these authors to ask and answer this important scientific question. The mission of a scientific journal is to publish manuscripts that are consistent with the scope of the journal and that have undergone a rigorous peer-review process. In the case of IEAM, the mission involves integrating scientific research with environmental management in an open forum that encourages hypothesis-testing, fosters technical discussion (including debate), and promotes new ideas and approaches to resolve difficult and complex environmental challenges. IEAM challenges scientists and environmental managers to ask and answer the “so what” and “what if” questions. The nature and extent of residual impacts from the Exxon Valdez oil spill is the subject of significant on-going scientific, regulatory, and public debate and controversy, as demonstrated by the recent newsmagazine article appearing in Time (Caplan 2006) in recognition of the anniversary of the oil spill. Consistent with the high standards of peer-review required by the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) and its members and recognizing the varied and strongly-held viewpoints surrounding this anniversary, the manuscript submitted by Harwell and Gentile was reviewed by 16 anonymous reviewers, including several members of the IEAM Founding Editorial Board. The authors are commended for their patience and their careful attention to comments and criticisms raised by reviewers during the preparation of their final manuscript. The final acceptance and publication of the Harwell and Gentile paper reflects a determination by the Editor-in-Chief and the Founding Editorial Board that the paper is substantive and worthy of publication. The publication of this paper does not, however, imply that IEAM endorses the authors' findings as scientific truth. The paper reflects the authors' interpretations of the extraordinarily comprehensive set of ecological studies performed following the oil spill. The Founding Editorial Board is aware that others may have different interpretations of the same studies, and that others may be able to point to different studies supporting contrary interpretations and conclusions. It is our hope and expectation that publication of the Harwell and Gentile paper will stimulate a productive, scientific debate concerning the nature of the residual impacts remaining nearly 2 decades after the Exxon Valdez oil spill and about the prognosis for continued recovery of the Prince William Sound ecosystem. The Founding Editorial Board of IEAM invites reaction to this paper and additional analysis that contributes to assessment of the ecological status of Prince William Sound; we will consider them in future issues of the journal, in accordance with our peer-review process. It is only by examination of the successes and weaknesses of our collective responses to the oil spill that we might learn from the event, avoid mistakes (if any), and improve our ability to respond to similar catastrophes in the future.

INTRODUCTION: As of now, no study has combined research from different sciences to determine the most suitable diet for humans. This issue is urgent due to the predicted population growth, the effect of this on the environment, and the deterioration of human health and associated costs.METHODS: A literature review determined whether an optimal diet for humans exists and what such a diet is, followed by six meta-analyses. The standard criteria for conducting meta-analyses of observational studies were followed. A review of literature reporting Hazard Ratios with a 95% confidence interval for red meat intake, dairy intake, plant-based diet, fiber intake, and serum IGF-1 levels were extracted to calculate effect sizes.RESULTS: Results calculated using NCSS software show that high meat consumption increases mortality probability by 18% on average and increases diabetes risk by 50%. Plant-based and high-fiber diets decrease mortality by 15% and 20% respectively (p < .001). Plant-based diets decreased diabetes risk by 27%, and dairy consumption (measured by increased IGF-1 levels) increased cancer probability by 48% (p < 0.01). A vegetarian or Mediterranean diet was not found to decrease the probability of heart disease. A vegetarian diet can be healthy or not, depending on the foods consumed. A Mediterranean diet with high quantities of meat and dairy products will not produce the health effects desired. The main limitations of the study were that observational studies were heterogeneous and limited by potential confounders.DISCUSSION: The literature and meta-analyses point to an optimal diet for humans that has followed our species from the beginnings of humankind. The optimal diet is a whole food, high fiber, low-fat, 90+% plant-based diet. This diet allowed humans to become the most developed species on Earth. To ensure people’s nutritional needs are met healthily and sustainably, governmental dietary interventions are necessary.

As of now, no study has combined research from different sciences to determine the most suitable diet for humans. This issue is urgent due to the predicted population growth, the effect of this on the environment, and the deterioration of human health and associated costs. A literature review determined whether an optimal diet for humans exists and what such a diet is, followed by six meta-analyses. The standard criteria for conducting meta-analyses of observational studies were followed. A review of literature reporting Hazard Ratios with a 95% confidence interval for red meat intake, dairy intake, plant-based diet, fiber intake, and serum IGF-1 levels were extracted to calculate effect sizes. Results calculated using NCSS software show that high meat consumption increases mortality probability by 18% on average and increases diabetes risk by 50%. Plant-based and high-fiber diets decrease mortality by 15% and 20% respectively ( p < .001). Plant-based diets decreased diabetes risk by 27%, and dairy consumption (measured by increased IGF-1 levels) increased cancer probability by 48% ( p < 0.01). A vegetarian or Mediterranean diet was not found to decrease the probability of heart disease. A vegetarian diet can be healthy or not, depending on the foods consumed. A Mediterranean diet with high quantities of meat and dairy products will not produce the health effects desired. The main limitations of the study were that observational studies were heterogeneous and limited by potential confounders. The literature and meta-analyses point to an optimal diet for humans that has followed our species from the beginnings of humankind. The optimal diet is a whole food, high fiber, low-fat, 90+% plant-based diet. This diet allowed humans to become the most developed species on Earth. To ensure people's nutritional needs are met healthily and sustainably, governmental dietary interventions are necessary.

This study conducts a bibliometric analysis of global trends in 'artificial intelligence studies in veterinary medicine'. The analysis aims to summarise the publications of researchers from various disciplines related to artificial intelligence in veterinary medicine, thereby predicting future trends of AI in this field. The primary objective of the study is to investigate publications pertaining to artificial intelligence in veterinary medicine worldwide and to analyse trends and future developments in this area. This bibliometric study examines artificial intelligence research in veterinary medicine conducted worldwide from 1990 to 2024. To achieve this, a search using the keywords 'artificial intelligence' and 'veterinary medicine' was performed in the Web of Science (WOS) database, resulting in the identification of 1497 studies. After excluding irrelevant publications and those outside the scope of articles, a total of 1400 articles were included in the analysis. The data collection process utilised titles, author names, publication years, journal names, and citation counts. All textual data were analysed using VOSviewer software to ensure accuracy and reliability. In this study, analyses conducted through text mining and data visualisation techniques (e.g., bubble maps) facilitated a clearer understanding of the results. This study presents information about 1400 articles obtained from the WOS database and a total of 44,700 citations for these articles. The average number of citations per article is 32, with an H-index of 74. A rapid increase in both the number of articles and citations has been observed since 2019. The majority of the articles (30%) were published in the fields of veterinary sciences, artificial intelligence, and computer sciences. The United States, Taiwan and the United Kingdom are the leading countries, accounting for 84% of the published articles in this field. Additionally, 12% of the articles were published in the area of veterinary sciences, and 85% of the articles fall within the SCI-Expanded category. The findings of our study indicate that there are numerous active researchers in the field of artificial intelligence in veterinary medicine and that research in this area is steadily increasing. This bibliometric analysis highlights global trends and significant works in artificial intelligence within veterinary medicine, providing valuable insights into the future directions of research in this field. As the analysis aims solely to identify trends and patterns in the literature, it does not intend to evaluate the applicability of the subject matter. Analysis of Global Trends: This study comprehensively analyses the global trends and effects of research on artificial intelligence in veterinary medicine. In this context, it contributes to the identification of significant changes and developments in the literature. Rapidly Spreading Research: Research on artificial intelligence in veterinary medicine has rapidly expanded in recent years, and this trend is expected to continue. The increase in studies indicates an expansion of knowledge and applications in this field. Diagnostic and Therapeutic Tools: Artificial intelligence research serves as a valuable tool in veterinary medicine, particularly in improving the diagnosis and treatment processes for various diseases. This contributes to the development of more effective methods for animal health and care. Increasing Number of Publications: The number of studies on artificial intelligence in veterinary medicine worldwide is increasing each year. Notably, after the Covid-19 pandemic, there has been a significant rise in publications in this field. This indicates that the importance of artificial intelligence in both human and animal health has grown, with the pandemic intensifying research interest. Prominent Countries: Among the countries examined in the study, the United States, Taiwan, England, and Germany emerged as leaders in this research area. Conversely, it was noted that some countries have very few or no academic publications in the field of artificial intelligence in veterinary medicine.