THE MAIN DIRECTIONS OF UYGHUR PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHT IN THE 18TH–19TH CENTURIES

Although at least thirty-five women were buried in the earlier necropolis at Vron during the period between ca. 370 / 75 and ca. 435 / 45, only three of them were equipped with typically Germanic brooches or other elements of dress. Such a low proportion of women whose dress was secured according to the Germanic custom by means of brooches, is not unusual in the burial sites of Northern Gaul, and indeed clearly distinguishes these from the burial grounds on the right bank of the Rhine in free Germania, where practically all the women used one or more brooches to fasten their clothing, and were subsequently buried with them. The evidence from Vron, as from other comparable military burial sites to the west of the Rhine (e.g. Oudenburg, Vermand, Vireux-Molhain), attesting how few women were buried with brooch jewellery , may indicate either that in actual fact very few Germanic women had accompanied their men-folk into Northern Gaul, or that the majority of women of barbaric origin had, in the process of cultural assimilation, abandoned their exotic costume at a very early date and now favoured Gallo-Roman dress. Among the typically Germanic dress ornaments observed at Vron, one may distinguish five different brooch types and one hairpin type, analysed below: 1. Simple cross-bow brooches belong to the most frequently attested and geographically widespread group of Germanic women's brooches in the 4 th and 5 th centuries (mid-4 th to mid-5 th centuries) between the Elbe and the Loire (fig. 2). They are almost invariably made of bronze, as are the two examples from Grave 163A and Pit 9. The brooch from Grave 163A, worn as a single item, is remarkable for its greater length, its short spring, and upper chord. These rather unusual features appear most frequently in the simple cross-bow brooches from the Lower Rhine and Westphalia. There, this unusual form may be dated chiefly to the first half of the 5 th century. This corresponds to the chronology proposed by Cl. Seillier, who attributes, on other evidence, Grave 163A to his Phase 3 (= ca.415/20-435/45). 2. Cross-bow brooches with a trapezoid foot-plate represent a further typological development of the simple cross-bow brooch. The silver brooch from Grave 242A possesses in addition a beaded wire decoration on the bow, together with a stamped metal plaque covering the trapezoid foot-plate, features which enable it to be classed with the Vert-la-Gravelle variant (fig. 3). This form of brooch, known almost exclusively by the archaeological evidence from the left bank of the Rhine is probably to be interpreted as the product of workshops in Northern Gaul, which are known to have manufactured other types of Germanic costume ornaments for the wives of foederati (see below). Comparison with the very similar brooches from Grave 7 at Vert-la-Gravelle (Mame) enable this example from Vron to be dated at the earliest to the last third of the 4 th century or to the turn of the century. The location of the inhumation within the burial ground suggests a date within Seillier's Phase 2 (= ca. 390-415/20). 3. The bronze hairpin from the same grave, over 17 cm long, with a small round head, belongs to the Fecamp type (fig. 4), known chiefly from the Germanic female burials and other archaeological evidence found in Westphalia and the Lower Rhine.

Late 20th-century and early 21st-century social movement toward gender equality in society has been significant. Parents and educators commonly expect that all youngsters should have the same life opportunities regardless of gender. In education, girls and young women are excelling, often equaling and even surpassing boys and men in academic performance and in earning college degrees and graduate degrees. Further, women are more frequently assuming traditionally “masculine” professional roles (doctor, lawyer, manager, legislator, governor, and others) while men more frequently assume traditionally “feminine” roles, successfully taking on more child care and housework, and working in nursing and other traditionally “feminine” fields. At the same time, preferences for gender hierarchy are still strongly expressed in many areas of society. At the top of leading social institutions including government and business, men still possess far more political, economic, and intellectual leadership power and authority in comparison to women; and in reaction to political and economic power imbalances, women’s rights activists sometimes express the idea of female superiority instead of arguing for gender equality. In the area of socialization, girls and women continue experiencing high levels of gender-specific pressure to conform to narrow ideals of physical beauty and emotional supportiveness, while boys and men continue experiencing pressure to avoid communicating about their vulnerabilities and emotions, possibly stunting their emotional development and impairing their mental health. In this context, gender equality emerges as a vital, early-21st-century educational imperative that is essential in actualizing what the Universal Declaration of Human Rights has designated the right of all people to an education for the “full development of the human personality.” In the gender equality imperative’s emergence in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the following elements are all interrelated: philosophical perspectives and sociopolitical developments indicating a need for gender equality, thinking and practices opposed to gender equality, and the development of pro-gender-equality educational understandings and practices.

The objective of this article is to identify the changes wrought by the Second World War in the body of ideas and practices utilized by the British political elite to rationalise the continued existence of the empire. The diminution of British influence, the universalist ideology of the United States, and the development of the national liberation movement in the colonies were all factors that contributed to the promotion of “new standards of progress”. London was forced to adjust its rhetoric and colonial policy accordingly. Concurrently, the novel interpretation of the “civilizing mission” was predicated on the long-standing tradition of the evolving colonial ideology in Great Britain, which was anchored in the intellectual and philosophical tenets of the Enlightenment and liberalism of the late 18th and 19th centuries. The concept “trusteeship”, which emerged in the late 18th century, served to describe and legitimise British rule over the colonies until the dissolution of the empire. The most significant innovation to emerge from the Second World War was the establishment of a framework for promoting colonial development and welfare that was firmly embedded within the concept of trusteeship. In addition to the humanitarian aspect, the 1940 and 1945 Colonial Development and Welfare Acts sought to ensure the most efficient utilization of the resources of the British possessions, thereby maintaining British influence in the international arena. In the political realm, the potential for the provision of self-governance or independence to colonial territories necessitated the urgent undertaking of educating local leaders who would be able to guarantee the preservation of British interests in the wake of a transition of authority. This endeavor, therefore, emerged as the paramount responsibility of the trustee.

As a nation grounded in the appropriation of Native land and the destruction of Native peoples, Christianity has helped define what it means to be “American” from the start. Even though neither the Continental Congress nor the Constitutional Convention recognized a unifying set of religious beliefs, Protestant evangelicalism served as a force of cohesion that helped Americans rally behind the War for Independence. During the multiple 19th-century wars for Indian removal and extermination, Christianity again helped solidify the collapse of racial, class, and denominational categories behind a love for a Christian God and His support for an American nation. Close connections between Christianity and American nationhood have flared in popularity throughout American history, particularly during wartime. In the late 19th and 20th centuries, the closely affiliated religious and racial categories of Christianity and whiteness helped solidify American identity. However, constructions of a white, Christian, American nation have always been oversimplified. Slavery, land-grabbing, and the systematic genocide of Native peoples ran alongside the creation of the American myth of a Christian nation, founded in religious freedom. Indeed, enslavement and settler colonialism helped contrive a coherence to white Protestantism during a moment of profound disagreement on church government, theology, and religious practice. During the antebellum period, white Protestants constructed a Christian and American identity largely in opposition to categories they identified as non-Christian. This “other” group was built around indigenous, African, Muslim, and sometimes-Catholic religious beliefs and their historic, religious, and racial categorizations as “pagans,” “heathens,” and “savages.” In the 19th-century republic, this “non-Christian” designation defined and enforced a unified category of American Protestants, even though their denominations fought constantly and splintered easily. Among those outside the rhetorical category of Protestantism were, frequently, Irish and Mexican Catholics, as well as Mormons. Enforced segregation of African Americans within or outside of white Protestant churches furthered a sense of Protestant whiteness. When, by the late 19th century, Protestantism became elided with white middle class expectations of productive work, leisure, and social mobility, it was largely because of the early 19th-century cultural associations Protestants had built between white Protestantism, republicanism, and civilization. The fact that the largest categories of immigrants in the late 19th century came from non-Protestant cultures initially reified connections between Protestantism and American nationalism. Immigrants were identified as marginally capable of American citizenship and were simply considered “workers.” Protestant expectations of literacy, sobriety, social mobility, and religious practice helped construct Southern and Eastern European immigrants as nonwhite. Like African Americans, New Immigrants were considered incapable of fulfilling the responsibilities of American citizenship. Fears that Catholic and Jewish immigrants, like African Americans, might build lasting American institutions to change the cultural loci of power in the country were often expressed in religious terms. Groups such as the No-Nothing Party, the Ku Klux Klan, and the Immigration Restriction League often discussed their nationalist goals in terms of historic connections between the nation and Anglo-Protestantism. During the Great Depression and the long era of prosperity in the mid-20th century, the Catholic and Jewish migrants gradually assimilated into a common category of “whiteness” and American citizenship. However, the newly expansive category of postwar whiteness also further distanced African Americans, Native Americans, Asian Americans and others as perpetual “foreigners” within a white, Protestant, Christian nation.

In this paper we reflect on and consider Adwa from the perspective of historical and continuing international Black movements and struggles for freedom in its aftermath. Adwa and, by extension, Ethiopia more broadly became a symbol and touchtone of African anti-colonial militancy, political independence and autonomy in an anti-black world. Adwa influenced the imaginations and real struggles of black people for freedom in a multitude of complex, often contradictory ways. However, while it punctured white supermacist narratives at the global stage, internally, in an age that marked the rise of the modern state form—with its fixed territorial borders— the memory of Adwa served as a foundational moment in the formation of modern Ethiopian nationalism. It also buttressed the making of a homogenizing and assimilationist tendency of Ethiopian nationalism in the 20th century and fed into its imperial project. Internationally, Haile Selassie, at the helm of the Ethiopian imperial project in the mid-twentieth century, was taken up as a symbol of Black freedom whilst he presided over an exploitative and oppressive empire at home. With some of the questions raised by current movements for decolonisation, we ask what is different about this contemporary moment when we think about Adwa in relation to international Black movements and struggles for freedom?; how do we remember it from today in relation to Ethiopia’s nationalisms (pan Ethiopian and particular ones)?; how do we memorialize it in thinking about freedom in a country with a dominant imperial nationalist ethos?

The incentive for writing this book was another book published by the Chemical Society about 60 years ago, titled British Chemists [1] that completely ignored women—as if there had not been any women among the chemists of earlier generations. The authors felt that the early women chemists in Britain, quite a few of them working already as early as the late 19th century, deserve credit. The book wholly justifies this. As the Introduction tells us, these women chemists rarely received recognition; most of them were unmarried and could never play a leading role in the profession. But they were most enthusiastic about and dedicated to chemistry—this is what must have given them the strength to fight all barriers. The first of these barriers was getting a secondary education (Chapter 1, ‘‘Setting the Scene’’) and then being accepted to a university. In secondary schools— as the Rayner-Canhams argue—throughout the early 20th century, there was ambivalence about why girls need an academic education at all. It was assumed that most girls would become wives and mothers and only a small minority would be interested in pursuing a career. Who would then be the curriculum aimed at? This reminds us of the American movie, Mona Lisa Smile, set in the 1950s in a rich private New England liberal arts college for women, where even some of the most intelligent and interested girls thought that their role in life was to be a good housewife and mother—and only that. If this was still the attitude in the United States in the 1950s, certainly it was even more so in the late 19th and early 20th century probably everywhere. It is quite astounding to read how relatively early, already in the late 19th century, the demand for university education appeared among women. The authors ascribe this to several factors. In the second half of the 19th century, several women’s organizations were established that stood up for higher education for middle-class women. In fact, middle-class women started to look much farther than ever before when planning their future. Several magazines supported this attitude. One example from an article in 1914 [2]: ‘‘Woman is taking to herself a new significance. She is discovering that she, as well as man, has another M. Hargittai (&) Materials Structure and Modeling Research Group of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, P.O. Box 91, 1521 Budapest, Hungary e-mail: hargittaim@mail.bme.hu

Little accounts has been documented on how Zulu women actively participated in traditional setting of the Zulu kingdom and their role during the Anglo- Zulu wars. Ndlovu (2009: 111) argued that academics tend to rely on late twentieth- century feminist analyses which informed by women's struggles in the industrial era to contest equality with men rather than the historical realities of balance interpretation of discourse in gender oppression.It has been a secret taboo that women's role during times of war and conflict were not accorded its rightful interpretation in historical discourse. Scholars do reflect on the above stereotype historical writings thought tradition that had brought this subject into historical debates that military participation was only coined to men or males. Mangena 1 (2008: 253) argued that by recognizing women role at equal footing with men as important narration in contemporary historiography, would tacitly endorsing the legitimacy of 'gender' as an issue in the terrain of social and political power between men and women. Then, this research will focus at producing data signifying women's role and influence during and after the wars. It also endeavors at recognizing their contributions and participation during the war times during the 19th Century and beyond.Mangena's article 'The Black Consciousness Philosophy and the Women's Question in South Africa: 1970-1980' contributed to Biko's Lives: Contesting the legacy of Biko. Contemporary Black History JournalThis paper delves at looking how Zulu women actively participated and extensive contributed in the ancient Anglo-Zulu conflicts and war of the 19th Century. Thus the paper will highlight women role vice versa with women oppression, the way in which both gender offered males and females similar equality to customary influence and power, in the Zulu kingdom. Emphasis will be on the women role during and after the conflict situation and women as age-regiments. One will not exclude their common role in the pre-colonial period as traditional healers.Women Role in the Precolonial EraIt is an undisputed fact that women and men were assigned specific tasks and duties within traditional Zulu society. Sifiso Ndlovu (2008: 111)'s article, from the book 'Zulu identities', stressed that women in the Zulu kingdom were recognized for their important contributions, to conflict and politics in the Zulu kingdom. Women were associated with cultivation, housekeeping, child rearing and thatching. Furthermore, women were also responsible for the hut thatching and the making of grass products. Mats done by women are for sleeping, sitting and eating on. Brewing tools, baskets, fowl nest and utensil pouches were also some of the material done by women.Closely link to Zulu tradition, indigenous home made beer (umqombothi) is prepared and brews by the women that are. As it is illustrated by the Zulu culture, traditional beer plays an important role in Zulu society and it is an essential part of all major rites, it is also important in everyday life, in parties and as offerings. The making of the traditional beer remains solely the responsibility of the women. During some important communal ceremonies, many of the cooking were not carried out by women but by men or king attendance / izinceku. The above shared responsibilities derailed the notion that men were exercising control over women, however, they were also participated and piloted warfare.In the late 19th century, women started to follow the men into labour market, seeking jobs on the mines and in the urban areas. This migrant system has moved men and women from the rural areas, disruption the traditional gender roles, resulting in rural women and the aged being forced to do tasks previously done by the men.Role of Zulu Women during the WarIt is important to stress that the historian and written sources did not positively portray the women's role during the Zulu war in totality and given recognition it deserved. …

Today, one of the issues that occupies the most tafsīr researchers is “the nature of tafsīr”. Different approaches have been presented regarding the issue of to what extent all interpretations of the Qur'an should be accepted as tafsīr. As a result of the dominance of the “social interpretation understanding”, which made its presence felt in the 20th century, the Qurʾān became the “book of guidance and life”; not just theoretical issues; The theme that it is a branch of science that produces solutions to individual and social problems has been brought to the agenda more. Especially in geographies affected by the Menar school and exposed to colonization, the Qurʾān and the related science of tafsīr are subject to re-reading; It is seen that it has gained functionality again as a source of information that “produces value” in different areas of life such as political, social, economic and education. Indonesians, who had a great struggle for independence and freedom in the 20th century, started to solve their own problems on this axis as a part of this process. In this study, the doctrine of Merhametizm (Marhamism), which was developed by the young leader of Bukittinggi of the Council of Indonesian Muslim Associations Darwis Thaib’s (1927-2008) texts of the Qurʾān and the basic starting points of socialism, against Sukarno’s (d. 1970) models such as Marhaenism and Tan Malaka’s (d. 1949) Murbaism was examined. Accordingly, a number of issues such as the relevance of Mercy to the science of tafsīr, the possibility of grounding it with revelation, the internal and external dynamics that were effective in the development of this thought, and the pros and cons of producing similar doctrines constitute the main subjects of our research. Darwis Thaib refers to Surah Beled as the basis of the doctrine of Mercy. According to him, “the struggle for freedom, independence and independence”, “social solidarity, cooperation and cooperation”, “the ability to empathize and think about others”, “love and respect”; Themes such as “the understanding of unity and togetherness” form the basis of the concept of “Social Justice”. Thus, Darwis Thaib came to the fore in Indonesia as the founder of a doctrine that we can call a kind of “practical commentary” by examining the theme of mercy, one of the key concepts of the Qurʾān, on a social and political level. Darwis Thaib stated that overcoming the “aqaba” (steep slope/hill) mentioned in the aforementioned surah requires serious effort and sacrifice and suggested that Muslims make this an agenda item. In our opinion, such efforts are meaningful and valuable as long as they do not conflict with the other main concepts of the Qurʾān. As a matter of fact, Buya Hamka (d. 1981) expressed his regrets that the doctrine of Mercy remained obsolete and criticized the politicians who did not take care of it. It is a fact that every step taken for the correct understanding of the Qurʾān is valuable, and it is equally necessary to produce new models based on a correct interpretation methodology for the problems of the period and to be able to present new proposals. This situation is also important in that it indicates the existence of an understanding and effort that goes beyond the literal level in the relationship with the Qurʾān and centers its thematic and systematics.

Kola is a bitter, caffeine-rich nut indigenous to the West African forest zones. Across western Africa, kola’s use is wide-ranging: it serves as a stimulant, a dye, and a critical item in healing, childbirth, weddings, religious rituals, and in mediating disputes. Kola is also integral to western African trade. From at least the 11th century, kola was a primary commodity in long-distance commerce between the Sierra Leone–Guinea forests to the savannah. West Africans traded kola along the Upper Guinea Coast before the arrival of the Portuguese in the 15th century, who subsequently engaged in the coastal kola trade. In the 19th century liberated African women in Sierra Leone formed an important trading diaspora, conveying the nut overland to the savannah, within West Africa, and to Europe. Asante became the world’s leading producer of kola in the late 19th and early 20th century, exporting the nut to the savannah and later to Lagos, Brazil, and Europe. In southern Nigeria, kola featured in local commerce and was conveyed to Brazil, Europe, and the United States. In Lagos, liberated Yoruba returnees from Sierra Leone were instrumental in the kola trade between Sierra Leone and the Gold Coast to Lagos, and to Brazil. Technological advancements stimulated kola trade within West Africa, and by 1930s, southern Nigerian-produced kola surpassed other areas of West Africa. Afro-Brazilian returnees were critical in the expansion of this production. Trade was also significant from Nupe to the north. Kola also made its way across the Atlantic. By at least the 17th century, kola was conveyed from West Africa to the Circum-Caribbean on slave ships. It was employed by Europeans to induce backbreaking labor from enslaved peoples; enslaved peoples themselves used the nut medicinally to treat a range of ailments. From the late 19th century, kola was imported to the British Caribbean as an alternative economic crop following the decline of sugar. Botanical gardens in the British Caribbean cultivated the nut and distributed it locally as well as regionally. Kola produced in the Caribbean and West Africa was exported to Europe and North America, where the nut was first embraced as a medicinal tonic, notably in Coca-Cola. From the 19th century, a long-distance trade was established between West Africa and Brazil, supporting the use of kola by Afro-Brazilians. The kola nut is sacred to several African-derived religions in the Americas, including the Brazilian Candomblé, Cuban Santería, and Grenadian and Trinidadian Orisa worship.

186Philosophy and Literature The Languages ofPsyche: Mind and Body in Enlightenment Thought. Clark Library Lectures 1985-1986, edited by G. S. Rousseau; 494 pp. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990, $55.00 cloth, $16.95 paper. Michel Foucault'sMadnessand Civilization and Birthofme Clinic—first published in 1961 and 1963, respectively—encouraged a critical rethinking ofthe Western psychiatric and medical traditions emerging from the European Enlightenment as institutions fundamental to the modern world. The Languages ofPsycL·, consisting of papers developed in a lecture series on the mind/body problem in the Enlightenment—a series to which Foucault had agreed to contribute a theoretical framework before his untimely death—provides as good an introduction as any to the most recent work on the beginnings of modern medicine. The essays, emerging from the vantage points of a variety ofdisciplines such as philosophy, literature, history, and medical history, are arranged in roughly chronological order and trace the developments found in the late 17th, 18th, and early 19th centuries. The first important development was the increasing power of physicians, and decreasing significance of philosophers and religious figures, as arbiters of the mind/body problem. The second important development took place within medicine itself: the move on the part ofthe physicians from the mechanistic, body-oriented, and scientifically quantifiable approach of the early Enlightenment, characterized by Boerhaave and Hoffmann, for instance, to a psychological, mind-oriented, and much more humanistic approach in the late 18th century (exemplified by Battie, Pinel, and Reil), which in the early 19th century lost ground to positivism. Although these broad themes are not particularly new, the essays provide much fresh evidence for their validity. Several ofthe papers deserve special commendations. Flynn makes a thoughtprovoking attempt to find similar patterns of thinking and rhetoric in 18thcentury physicians and such novelists as Richardson, Sterne, and Smollett. In a way reminiscent of Thomas Mann's Naphta, Schaffer intelligendy undercuts the polarities which grounded the 18th-century self-understanding, linking, for instance, the rational Enlightenment with the occult via such favorite secret societies as the Illuminati. Morris shows how Sade relied on medicine for much of his anatomical and biological thinking, while he rejected its value system, specifically its attempts to subdue pain. In the volume's final essay, Popkin studies the Enlightenment medical and scientific justifications for racism directed at Africans and Jews, justifications which at times relied on cultural factors related to conceptions ofmind and at times relied on physical differences in the body. If the collection of essays has any problems, it is the presence of Foucault's ghost. The papers, which frequendy cite Foucault and are dedicated, as he was, Reviews187 to examining institutional discourses which have too often fallen between the cracks of current academic disciplinary structures, are certainly of interest as New Historical documents. As such, they are in danger of descending into a Foucauldian epigonism which is nothing more than pedantry without a point. At times exaggerated claims are made for the importance of medical figures who have been ignored (perhaps rightly) for the last two centuries; at other times paragraphs full of arcane knowledge seem inserted only to prove the erudition and archival industriousness of the authors. Overall, however, these essays escape the danger ofbecoming New Historical parodies and contribute valuably to the field. The anthology's admirable bibliography and thorough index make it all the more helpful. TL· Languages of PsycL· should prove useful both to scholars who need an overview of the history of medicine and an introduction to the most recent work in the field and to specialists looking to polish their own work with the results ofthe latest research. Whitman CollegeRobert Tobin The Shades ofAeneas: The Imitation ofVergilandtheHistory of Paganism in Boccaccio's Filostrato, Filocolo, and Teseida , by James H. McGregor; ix & 133 pp. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1991, $30.00. James McGregor's Shades ofAeneas is a detailed study of three lesser-known works of Boccaccio: Filostrato, Filocolo, and Teseida. Its aim is to clarify the range of Vergilian and Statian allusions within these works and, in the process, to develop a coherent scheme for interpreting them. According to McGregor, all three ofthese early romances are highly critical ofthe pagan world they...

This essay provides an intellectual history for the cultural turn that transformed the human sciences in the mid-20th century and led to the creation of cultural sociology in the late 20th century. It does so by conceptualizing and contextualizing the limitations of the binary primitive/modernity. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, leading thinkers – among them Marx, Weber, Durkheim, and Freud – confined thinking and feeling styles like ritual, symbolism, totem, and devotional practice to a primitivism that would be transformed by the rationality and universalism of modernity. While the barbarisms of the 20th century cast doubt on such predictions, only an intellectual revolution could provide the foundations for an alternative social theory. The cultural turn in philosophy, aesthetics, and anthropology erased the division between primitive and modern; in sociology, the classical writings of Durkheim were recentered around his later, religious sociology. These intellectual currents fed into a cultural sociology that challenged the sociology of culture, creating radically new research programs in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.

Medieval music generally refers to western European music between the late 8th and early 15th centuries, although topics concerning Christian liturgy and plainchant reach further back into history. The Latin-Christian realms considered here include Britain ranging from England to St. Andrews, Scotland, the Frankish Empire from France to central Europe, the Spanish territories of Galicia, León, Castile, and Catalonia, the Mediterranean region, Sicily, and the Italian peninsula. Questions of how the music of these peoples was composed, conceived, performed, and preserved during this lengthy period are as many and diverse as the backgrounds and interests of those seeking answers. During the early Middle Ages, music was transmitted orally and the churches of different regions had distinctive liturgies and chants. With the unification of the Christian Church under the Carolingians around the turn of the 9th century, chant came to be written down, early musical notation serving as a memory aid. The relationship of Frankish and other regional chant repertories to that of the papal city of Rome, various attempts to regularize Western plainchant, and the music theory that developed to comprehend it are among the most extensively studied topics of chant scholarship. Religious songs other than chant were also sung, often outside of Church services, in Latin or such vernacular languages as Galician, German, Czech, English, Italian, and Hebrew. Numerous love songs were written in Old Occitan, French, and German. Starting in the 9th century, polyphonic arrangements of chants called organum emerged. In the 12th century, one encounters polyphonic settings of strophic Latin poems called versus and conductus. Sacred polyphony was by then performed at a number of centers, although the organum and conductus composed for Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris in the late 12th and early 13th centuries were the most widely disseminated and stylistically influential genres of their time. Toward the end of the Middle Ages, new genres of polyphonic composition emerged, notably the motet, various French and Italian secular songs, and Mass Ordinary movements. Instrumental music had existed since earliest times but it came to be notated only in the late 13th century in the form of monophonic dance tunes. Most composers of medieval sacred monophony are unknown except for certain authors of hymns, sequences, and chants. The courtly troubadours, trouvères, and Minnesänger are however often identified in manuscript song collections. By the 12th century, composers of polyphony like Leonin and Perotin were known and praised.

SUMMARY The purpose of this study was to investigate the transformation of the concept of literature during the Japanese colonial period (1895~1945) in Taiwan. We approached this topic focusing on the transformation of this concept with the intention to broaden our discussion from the works of specific authors to the fundamental question of “what is the meaning of literature during the time?” Our subjects of observation included the process of formation of public opinion and education, and how such process regulated and revolutionized the concept of literature. The historical and political context during this transformative period was also analyzed. We seek to describe and identify the unique historic and cultural traits underlying the modernization of the literature in Taiwan by contrasting with the established perspectives of Western European language arts. Additionally, we emphasized on how the ruling class tried to blend political agenda into the creation of literature and sense of aesthetics; to the people, this is at the same time liberating but also an effective tool to strengthen their rule of the land. INTRODUCTION In English, Chinese, and Japanese languages, one can observed the inseparable bonds among the formation of modern literature, liberation of the people, the drive for national independence, and the reform of the modern societal orders. Taiwan in the late 19th century, as the island became a Japanese colony, could not help but going through a similar process. Derived from the unique circumstances of the time, Taiwan faced problems and at the same time exhibited remarkable energy. During the early days of the Colonial Period, the media have already developed the consensus of literature based on the Western European language arts. The educated class of the Chinese Taiwanese started to expand and transform from the traditional understanding of “knowledge” and “literary texts” into a blended and encompassing concept. However, due to the colonial rules, the people-centric and a justice-based world views could not take root for the concern of shaking the existing order. It was only until around 1920 that the new visions of Taiwanese politics amalgamated to form a cultural movement that challenged the Japanese ruling order. This movement also ignited the debate of the new vs. the traditional literature. In addition to the general public’s revolt to the upper classes, the emergence of the cultural movement was also related to Japan’s change of colonial policies. Examining the colonial rule in the 1910s, incorporating arts and literary into structured education was a subtle attempt to development a “virtue system”. From imposing moral righteousness and etiquette to assimilating freedom of expression into education, the Taiwanese children gradually began to accept the form of literary education which embedded the messages of becoming loyal, patriotic, and self-regulated people of the civilized empire. This form of education was similar to the one used in mainland Japan. With high regards, children were expected to become autonomous individuals who cooperate with the colonial government. Investigating the common school curriculum, we can see that the official literature taught in school was very comprehensive covering all topics of interests in the society. At the same time, it also encouraged a dissociating attitude that promoted objective observation and subdued engagement. This form of education aimed to develop individuals who can be “harmless” to the government through the appreciation of art and beauty. The goal was to indoctrinate the students a sense of self-imposed regulation, and to become the unyielding defenders of the existing ruling system. In the environment that stressed “individual autonomy” and “freedom of expression”, the teaching of the literature became a tool to deepen the colonial rule, however, it also carried the energy of liberation. From the formation of the literary circles among the Japanese in Taiwan, we can observe that the literati began to question the paradox within this form of modernization. As the studies of liberalism and democracy emerged, some intellectuals began to mend the widening gap between literary art and the society. During the leftwing activism of the latter half of 1920s, we observed criticisms to the existing aesthetic standards and hierarchy of literature. The progressive ideologies toward politics and literature were soon suppressed in mid 1930s. However, the Taiwanese people who were still burdened with the issues of basic civil rights could not as easily return to the pure forms of literary art. In the Han society of Taiwan, the “new literature” was rooted in challenging the colonial governing system and expressing the interests of the authors (individual autonomy) and the readers (freedom of expression). But it is also undeniable that the Taiwanese appreciation and experience of the modern literature arose from the language, education, and the related infrastructures. Therefore, the ingrained sense of aesthetics and the ideals of the ruling class have ironically always been a part of the cultural movement toward liberation of the colony. Such contrast was clearly presented in the rhetoric regarding literature and the literary concept during the 1930s in Taiwan. Such debate regarding the concepts of literature ceased during the War. In addition to the suppression of free speech, the government promoted political aestheticization in order to garner civilian support for the war effort. Literature became a tool for motivating the people and was an integral part of the political propaganda. However, contrary to the scheme of the Japanese government, some Taiwanese writers would derail to resume discussing the general principles of literature. The criticism and condemnation befell these acts demonstrated the tension between the colonial policy and the freedom of literary discussion. It also revealed the bottom line of freedom of expression during wartimes. From this perspective, the War tested the boundaries of the literature’s self-regulating property on multiple fronts; specifically the strong contrast between the Taiwanese resistance movement and the Japanese Nationalism. This view is important when discussing the concept and independence of literature during that period of time. CONCLUSION The current study identified the historical transformation of the concept of Taiwanese literature. We re-examined the use of the terms “literature” and “literariness”, and the orthodox and unconventional societal values contained within these concepts. We also questioned and reconsidered a number of the existing models of literary history. For example, the general (writing) and the specific (language arts) concepts of literature were not antagonistic to each other as if in a simple “old vs. new” context. Both concepts played to the tunes of progressivism and conservatism at different times to express the changes of the worldview. And they both have contributed to the struggle against institutional oppression (e.g. movements for freedom of speech and expression). By reconsidering the modern transformation of literature, we realized that the emergence of “language arts” should not be viewed as the totality of this process or simply a symbol of liberation and progression. Additionally, we may need to think beyond the confines of traditionally opposing constructs such as “form vs. content”, “skills vs. thoughts”, “literariness vs. pragmatism”, and “literariness vs. politics”, and to reconsider the purpose of each cultural movement. We particularly should examine how the conceptual transformations of literature helped resisting the oppression from the ruling class and shaping the new societal values.

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This paper looks at the attempts to found marine stations in Britain during the late 19th century and seeks to show how a fuller understanding of these events, and their success or failure, can be gained by looking both at the scientific background to the movement and at the broadly similar problems that faced their founders. The survival of early marine stations depended largely on how successfully they balanced scientific objectives with the applied work which was the price of government support. Those stations that continued into the twentieth century did so mostly by abandoning pure research in marine zoology and by concentrating on fisheries problems; only these attracted the grants essential for their survival. This was a turn of events unforeseen when the foundation of marine stations was discussed in the 1870's but ideas changed rapidly in the early 1880's when it became apparent that progress could be made only by accepting a different orientation. This paper looks at how official policy towards science in Britain affected oceanography and other aspects of marine science during the late 19th century, and how scientists hoped that the foundation of marine stations would fulfil both a scientific and a practical need for institutional bases for marine research. However, competition for scarce resources created tension and rivalry between institutions from which few escaped unscathed. The underlying reasons for such problems cannot generally be dealt with extensively in the histories of individual stations but they contribute much to our understanding of how such institutions developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The paper concludes with a brief review of individual stations, particularly those in Scotland.