The Limits of Empire: A Study of the Relationship between the Ming Dynasty and the Lān Xāng Kingdom (1402–1613)

This research explores the spatial distribution patterns of water engineering facilities along the Grand Canal during the Ming and Qing dynasties. It employs the entropy method to assess the social development status of prefectures during these periods and uses the Tobit model to examine the primary indicators influencing the distribution of water engineering facilities. The results show that the spatial distribution pattern of water engineering facilities was characterized by aggregation during the Ming and Qing dynasties. In contrast, the Qing dynasty’s distribution was more dispersed, with a shift in the construction focus of water engineering facilities towards the south. The spatial distribution pattern of water engineering facilities in the Ming Dynasty centered around the hotspot areas of Shuntian Prefecture, Yanzhou Prefecture, and Yangzhou Prefecture. During continuous improvements, these facilities exhibited a multi-point-regional aggregation phenomenon.The influence of commercial development indicator on the spatial distribution of water engineering facilities is positively correlated in both the Ming and Qing dynasties. However, the impacts of the indicator on different types of water engineering facilities vary between the two dynasties. During the Ming Dynasty, the indicators of transportation accessibility and cultural prosperity facilitated the construction of regional water engineering facilities, whereas in the Qing Dynasty, they significantly influenced several types of water engineering facilities. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, neither the agricultural development indicator nor the population size indicator significantly affected the distribution of water engineering facilities. However, there was a negative correlation between the population size indicator and the distribution of water distribution facilities in the Ming Dynasty. This study enhances the importance of environmental protection in historical societies and provides a valuable reference for other international studies of linear cultural and material heritage.

The Little Ice Age (LIA) during the Ming and Qing dynasties was the most abnormal climate event in China for nearly 2,000 years. During this period, the climate was relatively cold and various natural disasters frequently took place. By locating and compiling related historical documents, we aimed to quantitatively and systematically analyze the spatial–temporal variations in the natural disasters in the ancient Huizhou region (hereinafter referred to as Huizhou region or Huizhou) during the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368–1911; all dates are in AD, unless otherwise mentioned). The results show that (1) flood and drought disasters, the major types of disasters in this area during the Ming and Qing dynasties, occurred 422 times, accounting for 79.6% of the natural disasters, (2) there was a significant correlation of occurrence frequency of flood plus drought disasters and the total natural disasters on a certain time scale. In addition to flood and drought disasters, other disasters (hailstorms, windstorms, frosts, and earthquakes) occurred more frequently in the Qing dynasty (1644–1911) than in the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). The occurrence frequency of natural disasters had a fluctuant variation pattern over time, with peaks emerging about once a century. The peaks of natural disasters were mainly concentrated at 1471–1490, 1571–1590, 1671–1690, 1751–1770, and 1851–1870, which is supported by the wavelet analysis, (3) the most frequent natural disasters took place in Wuyuan, followed by Jixi, Shexian, Xiuning, Qimen, and Yixian. More droughts occurred in Jixi and Yixian, while more floods occurred in Wuyuan, Shexian, and Qimen, more hailstorms occurred in Wuyuan and Jixi, more frost disasters occurred in Wuyuan, Jixi, and Qimen, and more earthquakes occurred in Wuyuan and Jixi. The occurrence frequency of wind disasters was not high in any of the counties, (4) flood and drought disasters in the Huizhou region exhibited obvious stage characteristics during the Ming and Qing dynasties, and they changed gradually from droughts to floods, among which the transition from slight drought to slight flooding was the most obvious during 1811–1911, and (5) overall, slight flooding and slight drought situations accounted for the largest percentage of drought and flood disasters in this area during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Among these, slight flooding mainly occurred in Shexian and Qimen; severe flooding mainly occurred in Wuyuan; slight drought mainly occurred in Yixian; and severe drought mainly occurred in Jixi.

Distribution of sand dunes and sand shifts along the southern fringe of the Mu Us Desert since the Ming Dynasty

In the late Ming Dynasty, a family of the Po, who was a Mongolian military officer, emerged in Xuanfu. At first, they served as “Yi Ding(Tatar Soliders)” in Jiubian(nine-frontier fortification system of the Ming Dynasty). Unlike the Mongolians who joined the Wei Suo system in the early Ming Dynasty, the Po family served as private armed servants of Ming Dynasty border defense generals. They not only serve as frontline soldiers for border defense generals, but also serve as Mongolian language translators for them. In short, they have a lot of effectiveness.At the same time, they were incorporated into the military status of the garrison in Xuanfu, and became officials in the camp step by step from the positions of garrison and guerrilla.Its members took part in a series of eastern expeditions and western wars in the late Ming Empire, such as the Imjin War, and participated in the battles of Jigsan and Ulsan to expel the Japanese army, while the father and son of Pou Tingxiang participated in the war between the Ming Dynasty and the Later Jin Dynasty and sacrificed their lives on the battlefield. After the change of Dynasties in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the members of the Po family chose to become officials in the Qing Dynasty for the sake of family interests, and tried to let the next generation continue to engage in the army and maintain their glory. However, due to the collapse of the former Ming Dynasty’s military officer system, the Qing Dynasty’s vigilance against the former Ming Dynasty’s generals, and the characteristics of the Qing Dynasty’s military system and military officer system itself, the Po family did not get the same position of power as the former Ming.In the end, like other generals on the Jiubian(nine-frontier), the former Ming generals, who were born as adherents, gradually withered away in the Qing Dynasty.

Sanqi is first recorded in the Compendium of Materia Medica(Ben Cao Gang Mu) in the Ming Dynasty. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Sanqi, as a precious Dao-di herb, was successively spread and introduced for cultivation. This study verified the germplasm resources, production areas, and spread of Sanqi in the Ming and Qing Dynasties by systematically reviewing the historical materials, such as materia medica works and local chronicles, and the modern distribution of production areas. In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the original plants of Sanqi included Panax notoginseng, P. japonicus, P. bipinnatifidus, P. zingiberensis, P. stipuleanatus, and Gynura japonica. Among them, the production area of P. notoginseng has changed. From 1578 to 1593, the main production areas of P. notoginseng were Nandan county, Hechi city in Guangxi Zhuang autonomous region and Guangnan county and Funing county, Wenshan prefecture in Yunnan province. From 1683 to 1755, the production areas of P. notoginseng additionally included Yizhou district, Tian'e county, and Huanjiang county in Hechi city, and Tianyang district and Tiandong county in Baise city, Xincheng county and Gongcheng county in Guangxi Zhuang autonomous region. From 1765 to 1892, the production areas additionally included Youjiang district, Debao county, Napo county, and Jingxi city in Baise city, and Tiandeng county in Guangxi Zhuang autonomous region, and Wenshan city, Malipo county, Yanshan county, Xichou county, and Maguan county in Wenshan prefecture, and Baoshan city, Dali prefecture, Lincang city, Honghe prefecture, Mangshi city, and Lushui city in Yunnan province. During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, Sanqi was introduced to Zhejiang province. During the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty, it was introduced to Fujian province. During the Daoguang period of the Qing Dynasty, it was introduced to Hunan province. By comprehensively reviewing the materia medica works, local chronicles, and novel historical materials, this study restores the development history of the Sanqi industry in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Historical data show that the introduction of Dao-di herbs should consider the biological characteristics of medicinal plants and avoid blind introduction.

As one of the four famous stones in China, Shoushan stone has been used for over a thousand years. It was highly valued by the world during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and deeply influenced the development of seal cutting and stone carving art. The Ming Dynasty Shoushan stone seal collected by the Palace Museum is an important component of the Ming Dynasty imperial and empress seal, and has important value for us to study the development of Shoushan stone culture and Ming Dynasty Shoushan stone culture. This article sorts out and studies the types, characteristics, materials, and carvings of Shoushan stone seals in the Ming Dynasty from three aspects: the relationship between Shoushan stone seals and Ming Dynasty imperial seals, the study of Ming Dynasty imperial Shoushan stone seal button decorations, and the relationship between Ming Dynasty imperial seals and royal Buddhist beliefs, in order to have a more systematic understanding of them and trigger new thinking on the inheritance and development of Shoushan stone culture at present.

In the field of the pictorial decoration of Chinese architecture, the decor of the period of the Ming and Qing dynasties is considered the most outstanding since, at that time, the technique was perfect, and the methods of decoration were rich in their diversity, which was not possible in previous eras. The polychrome painting of official buildings during the Ming and Qing dynasties’ reign is quite different from the Song dynasty’s polychrome painting. The transition from the Song dynasty’s polychrome painting to the Ming and Qing dynasties’ polychrome painting was completed during the Yuan dynasty’s reign. Due to the decrease of dougong in size in the Ming dynasty, polychrome painting began to be placed on beams. Xuanzi polychrome painting, which originated from painting beams under the Yuan dynasty, became the primary type. By the Qing dynasty, Hexi polychrome painting and Suzhou polychrome painting, which evolved from the folk polychrome painting of the Jiangnan region of the Ming dynasty, appeared. The Xuanzi type was one of the three main polychrome painting types in the Qing dynasty. It was fully developed compared to the Hexi type as it was used more widely. The article explains the development of the artistic features of the various decorative parts of Xuanzi polychrome painting during the Ming and Qing dynasties, the characteristics of each gradation, and the method of distinguishing it, as well as its place of application.

This text is intended to analyze the theme of the understanding and discussion of the life and death of the adherents during the transition period of Ming and Qing Dynasties. For the adherents remained by the former Dynasty, the most realistic concerns might be their identity, which was the reason to understand and make decision on living style. Questioning about survival as ‘Who am I ?’ was just authentication for the identity of the adherents and also was being testified with their social and moral role in the atmosphere being ruled by an alien race. Therefore, discussion on the identity of private and adherents, survival style and the view of life and death in the period of dynastic transformation between Chinese and alien race, i.e., the change between Ming and Qing Dynasty, become an important issue. The dominant view of the life and death of the adherents in the period of change of Ming and Qing dynasty was the Righteousness of Kings and Ministers which attaches importance to monarch-subject relationship. The central idea is dying for the sake of honor as ‘downfall of the ruler and the downfall of the ministers.’ On the other hand, the phenomenon of adherents fleeing to Zen Buddhism is prevalent in the period of change of Qing and Ming Dynasty, which became one of major survival ways. With reference to ‘downfall of the ruler and the downfall of the ministers’, the adherents who selected to flee to Zen Buddhism became those ‘should die but not died’. Their survival was difficult to receive legal recognition socially. Then, such issues as that, is the Righteousness of Kings and Ministers could be the moral standards and absolute value which could determine the life and death and the living issues with the adherents, how the privates and adherents at the end of Ming dynasty understood the life and death, and how the value of death and living could be assessed, with what standards, and so on, would be subjected. With such understanding, this text will make an analysis on the view of life and death of the adherents in the period of change of Ming and Qing dynasty. The analysis will be made on the development of discussion of life and death, recognition whereof, and the meaning of the view of life and death, with the proposition as ‘Must die’, ‘Not must die and Confucian orthodoxy which were major arguments on life and death at the end of Ming dynasty, and with two axes as Death and Flee to Zen Buddhism set up. Through such analysis, that is to analyze the recognition and meaning on the life and death of the adherents facing the crisis of death, this text is desired to present a balanced understanding on the view of life and death in the period of change of Ming and Qing dynasty.

The Little Ice Age was concurrent with frequent natural disasters in China during the Ming and Qing Dynasties (1368–1911 AD). Using historical documents created in the Yangtze River Delta during these dynasties, we reconstructed the severity and frequency of locust plagues. We uncovered their temporal and spatial patterns, the relevant influencing factors, and the applied control measures. These locust plagues occurred in the Yangtze River Delta during summer and autumn and were considered moderate-degree disasters. The locust plagues during the Qing Dynasty were less harmful than those during the Ming Dynasty. The locust plagues occurred north of 31°N and were concentrated around lakes and rivers. Regarding long-term changes, three periods of frequent locust plagues were identified: 1520–1540 AD, 1610–1670 AD, and 1850–1870 AD. The locust plague cycles were dominated by long-term changes of 100 and 350 years, alternating with short-term changes of 10–30 years. Locust growth and development typically occur under suitable climate conditions. However, in the Yangtze River Delta, the relationship between locust outbreaks and temperature changes was insignificant, whereas flood disasters provided suitable humidity conditions for locust nymph growth. Locust plague outbreaks had a series of social impacts, one direct result was rising food prices. When facing locust plagues, the Ming and Qing Dynasties formed effective top-down preventative measures corresponding to local conditions. The locust plagues in the Yangtze River Delta during the Ming and Qing Dynasties occurred with regularity, were responsive to local hydrological conditions, and impacted social economies and technologies.

There were systems of Mang robes both in Ming and Qing dynasties. However, they differ greatly in style although they have got the same name. A Mang robe in Ming Dynasty has big and wide body and sleeves, the same style as that of Han nationality. But the Mang robes of the Qing Dynasty bear the features of typical nomadic style with turtle neck, buttons on the right side, and horse-hoof sleeves. Although the Qing Mang robe system is from the Ming dynasty, only those external ornaments that can be accepted by the rulers remain. Rulers of Qing Dynasty believed that ornaments were only used to decorate the garments and there was no need to rigidly adhere to the external form.

KEYWORD:Traditional; Wooden structure; Architechture;Bracket;Culture ABSTRACT:Bracket has experienced vicissitudes for hundreds of years in Chinese traditional wooden architechture, so that the natural color on its surface had long been faded, however, the marvelous sculptures on it has always been suggesting that the lives of the ancients and it is the fantastic designs,exquisite carving skills, vivid patterns and lifelike interests that have shown us the artistic charm of Chinese traditional wooden architechture. In order to arise the enthusiasm about bracket,this passage intends to disuss the implication and spirit culture of the by analyzing the historical evolution, sculpt, size and materials such characteristics. WITH REFERENCE TO THE BRACKET Bracket also named as ChengGong, XieCheng, TuoZuo, which is a diagonal wooden stick out of the eave column, and the crossbar is a purlin which is used for bracing the cornice. Bracket can not only increase the roof eaves to shelter from the wind and rain,but also transmit the upper gravity to the eave column in order to maintain the stability of the buildings.( Figure 1) Initially, the was not be accepted by publicity for its heavy body, so it is difficult to see it in traditional wooden architechture. Thanks to the development of traditional woodcarving techniques, had been prevailed in traditional wooden architectures. Bracket, gradually became a significant component with the arrival of woodcarving techiniques in Ming and Qing Dynasties. So in Ming and Qing Dynasties, brackets could be found everywhere in traditional wooden architecture, which were mainly concentrat-ed in the ancestral hall, luxury, Academy, temples, shops, offices and other buildings with high standards of construction. Bracket culture is the essence of the implication of the Chinese traditional architectural culture with fleshy or light shapes and fantastic carving skill. THE HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF BRACKE- T IN TRADITIONAL WOODEN ARCHITECTUR-E The history of was shorter than other timber structural members and there was not any evidence proved that brackets appeared before Ming Dynasty. The early was a diagonal wooden stick, just like the bottle spout, and no decoration on it. In Ming Dynasty, extremely simple lined carving was appeared the . In the midterm of Ming Dynasty, the decoration of bracket had been valued, much intagliated decorative lines were used to carve, then the volume grass carving were appcared. Due to the prosperity of the economy and increases of the artists, the and wood were combined perfectly, the clumsy image of had become flexible for the wood carving technology, hence the was popular among the people.

The relationship between Chenghuang Temple and affiliated Garden is a representative urban historical public space in Shanghai, which is more typical in Qingpu. A large number of Chenghuang Temple and affiliated gardens were built in Qingpu during the Ming and Qing dynasties, of which two Chenghuang Temple and affiliated gardens in Qingpu County and Zhujiajiao Town are the most famous. The construction process of temples and gardens in both regions has gone through twists and turns, and there are many similarities: from the beginning of construction in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, to the destruction caused by war during the Xiantong period, as well as the reconstruction during the Guangxu period, and the new development in contemporary times. With the social change and the development of the times, the space and landscape of the Chenghuang Temple and affiliated garden in the two places have changed one after another, the relationship between affiliated garden has also changed, and the interactive relationship with the urban space has also been reconstructed. This paper focuses on the development of temples and gardens in Qingpu County and Zhujiajiao Town after the Ming Dynasty, and conducts a comparative study of the two from the aspects of historical changes, temple patterns, garden layout and the relationship between temples and gardens. By analyzing the diachronic changes of the landscape space and social functions of temples and gardens, it reveals the transformation of the relationship between temples and gardens with social change, and the construction process of the interactive relationship between urban historical public space and cities such as Chenghuang Temple and affiliated Garden.

During the Ming dynasty, the industry and the town of Jingdezhen underwent radical changes. The quantity of porcelain produced increased dramatically and the quality greatly improved. Porcelain produced in Jingdezhen during the Ming and Qing dynasties is generally divided into two groups, the official wares, guanyao , and the privately produced pottery, minyao . Porcelain trade in the town can be divided into two parts: retail shops for the individual customer and branches of wholesale buyers. Two factors which played an important role in the development of the industry, and which have perhaps been underestimated, were the existence of a viable local transport system and Jingdezhen's access to a nationwide marketing network. The inability of late imperial and early republican China to sustain and modernise its transport and marketing systems was one of the major factors that deprived Jingdezhen of a chance to develop into a modern industrial centre. Keywords: guanyao ; Jingdezhen; Ming dynasty; minyao ; Porcelain; Qing dynasty

In the Ming dynasty and qing dynasty furniture design of the main dimensions are analysis, studied the design scope of 5 furniture styles in Ming Dynasty and 5 furniture styles in Qing Dynasty, discusses the reflect practical, the concept of functional and aesthetic problems. Using qualitative research, descriptive research, analysis of the content.The results show that the concept of furniture in Ming Dynasty design is conceptually analysis, reflecting the philosophy of ancient Chinese culture, the physical properties of materials are human media, and the practical essence is simple shapes. Sturdy and durable furniture is a versatile function of furniture, the use of furniture comfort is not ergonomic, but reflects the aesthetic side. The elegant style and smooth lines, combined with the harmonious balance of curves and straight lines through the connection of carving and assembly, accentuate the unique shapes and delicate structures that accentuate the aesthetics of the furniture and the surface of the material. This paper analyzes the design style of furniture in Qing Dynasty conceptually and puts forward the concept of aesthetics and symbolic meaning which reflect the characteristics of ancient Chinese culture. In terms of ease of use, the design focuses on size and ergonomic curves, with an aesthetic influenced by the Ming Dynasty. Such as marble pearl decoration, latex coating, etc. Ming and Qing furniture not only influenced culture and art, but also the understanding of the structural level of furniture, which is the basis of modern furniture structure and will bring greater aesthetic value.

Both Patrinia Herba and Patrinia Radix are traditional Chinese herbal medicines. The herbal source and medicinal part of them are confusing in the herbal medicine market of China. To explore the evolution and transition of the herbal source and medicinal part of Patrinia Herba and Patrinia Radix, this paper systematically summarizes the record of the herbal source and medicinal part of them in ancient classics of herbal medicine in China. According to the findings, before Ming Dynasty, Patrinia Herba originated from the radix of the plants with yellow flowers of Patrinia. In Ming and Qing Dynasty, Patrinia Herba originates from the whole plant (including the radix)of the plant with white flowers of Patrinia. In Ming Dynasty, Patrinia Radix, stemming from the radix of the plants with yellow flowers of Patrinia, started to be used as a traditional Chinese herbal medicine, which had the same herbal source with that of Patrinia Herba before Ming Dynasty. Therefore, Patrinia Herba and Patrinia Radix can be seen as the same traditional Chinese herbal medicine, and the genuine of Patrinia Herba should be the radix and the whole herba of P. scabiosaefolia and P. heterophylla.