The influence of nominal prefixes on the formation of compound words in Xitsonga

Background: Compound word is a word that include of two elements (a root/a word/a phrase and a root/a word) formed a new word and new meaning. Compounding is very important word formation process to know, especially in learning morphology in linguistics where students are required to learn the origin of the word formed.
 Purpose: The purpose of this study is to find out the types and the meanings of compound words refers to theory of Plag, then to know the types of compound words mostly found in articles.
 Design and methods: Method of this study used descriptive qualitative research. To collect the data, the writer used documentation technique. From four types of compound, nominal compound is often appearing, because nominal compound is compound words that indicate and refer to the single noun (person, thing, animals, etc.).
 Results: This result also shows that the compound words not only create new word but also create new meaning. It can use to study about word formation especially in compounding.

Malayalam is a highly agglutinated resource-poor language. A lot of words in Malayalam are formed by the repeated addition of suffixes into root forms of the words called stems. Such words are called compound words. Identifying root words from the compound words is a key challenge in the preprocessing of Malayalam text. The grammar rules in Malayalam known as sandhi rules play a vital role in the splitting and formation of compound words. In this paper, we have proposed a hybrid methodology for suffix separation in Malayalam compound words. The sandhi rule associated with each compound word is recognized through machine learning approach. And suffix separation is performed using a rule-based approach. Since a lot of rules are required for suffix separation in Malayalam, we have only considered ‘Agamasandhi’ words for rule-based splitting. The proposed system provides better results and can be extended to prepare a complete suffix separation system for Malayalam.

Compound words play an important role in German and are one of the most discussed topics in linguistics. A huge number of linguists have studied the problems of word composition: M.D. Stepanova, W. Fleischer, G. Haken, V.P. Furmanova, L.K. Latyshev, M.I. Nosacheva and others. Compounding is one of the most productive ways of word formation in German. There are many areas in which compound words are often used, and the publicistic texts are not an exception. The formation of compound words is a complex process and the translation of these words into other languages is a difficult task for translators. The aim of this study is to analyze the ways of translation of the German compounds in the publicistic texts into Russian. The analysis was carried out on 200 lexical units selected by continuous sampling from “Economics” and “Politics” sections in the newspaper “Die Zeit” and in the online news site “Deutsche Welle”. Most compound words under analysis are two-part lexical units. Composites consisting of three or more stems are rarely used, as they are difficult to perceive. The study showed that more than 50% of the German compounds are translated into Russian using calque translation. In 27.5% of cases analogous Russian words were used. 12% of the analyzed compounds were rendered into Russian using descriptive translation and in 8% of cases the method of generalization was used.

This paper presents the phonological alterations involved in the formation of compound words in the Runyambo language. Runyambo is a Bantu language spoken in the northwestern part of Tanzania. Compounding is a rich morphological process that has been reported in different languages of the world. Despite the extensive body of research on compounding in other languages, there is little to no literature addressing this phenomenon in Runyambo. This paper focuses on Runyamigongo dialect of Runyambo discussing their morphophonological properties. The theory of lexical morphology is applied with data collected through extraction from written materials and elicitation techniques. The paper is qualitative in nature. A total of 2 informants were involved in focus group discussion. Secondary data were collected from the Runyambo-Kiswahili-English dictionary. It was found that compound words in Runyambo are formed at both stratum 1 and 2. Most compound words in Runyambo are formed at stratum 1 involving the changes in vowels like deletion, coalescence and gliding. Some were found to undergo more than one alteration. Most alterations result from the morphological and phonological alterations like deleting prefixes like augments and deleting some other vowels. It can generally be concluded that compounding is productive in Runyambo and despite the presence of a few compounds which do not exhibit any morphophonological alterations, most compounds show phonological alterations in their formation. This presents the morphophonological richness of the language.

Compound words, formed by combining two or more morphemes, play a significant role in Xitsonga’s lexicon. This study employs a descriptive qualitative approach to examine how the head and modifier(s) interact to contribute to the overall structure and meaning of compound words in Xitsonga. Data were collected through unobtrusive measures from secondary sources. The Construction Morphology and Pragmatic Theory framework underpins this study. This article has established three types of compound words in Xitsonga distinguished by headedness: endocentric, copulative and exocentric. The left-headedness of endocentric compounds, the equal contribution of constituents in copulative compounds, and the elusive nature of exocentric compounds highlight the versatility and complexity of Xitsonga compound word formation. The study also found that the richness of Xitsonga compounding lies in the intricate relationship between semantics and culture, as it creates categories by combining morphemes from various lexical categories, including nouns, verbs, adjectives, ideophones and adverbs. These findings prove that compounding is a productive process for creating new vocabularies in Xitsonga. Contribution: This study significantly enhances the understanding of Xitsonga morphology by systematically classifying compound words into endocentric, copulative and exocentric types based on headedness. It elucidates the equal and hierarchical roles of constituent morphemes, thereby highlighting the versatility and complexity of compound word formation in Xitsonga. The study also demonstrates the intricate relationship between semantics and cultural factors in the compounding process, showcasing how various lexical categories interact to create a rich and nuanced vocabulary.

Analgesia and anesthesia: etymology and literary history of related Greek words.

This study aims to find out the types of compound words and formation of compound words found in the Guardian News Websites. The data were classified and analyzed by applying the theory from Delahunty & Garvey (2010) and supported by the theory from McCarthy (2002), about the types and the formation of compound words. This study applied descriptive qualitative research and the data were collected using observation and documentation technique. The results of this study found that there were 164 compound words in fourteen selected news articles on the Guardian News Website. The first result showed that there are four types of compound words found in this study: 101 (62%) compound nouns, 33 (20%) compound verbs, 25 (15%) compound adjectives, and 5 (3%) prepositions compound. The second result showed that there are four types of compound word formation: 103 (63%) closed compound, 29 (18%) open compound, 22 (13%) hyphenated compound, and 10 (6%) mixed compound.

In spite of the fact that compounding is really pervasive in the world’s languages and despite the huge volume of literatures on compounding in languages, a critical assessment of the extant literature on compounding reveals that providing satisfactory criteria for defining and or determining compoundhood still requires both language specific and cross-linguistic investigations for dependable linguistic generalizations. As it were, there are hardly any universally accepted criteria for determining compoundhood, hence the focus of reasearch is how to determine compounding across languages. In Ígálà,1 in particular, not much attention has been devoted to describing compounding. The present study therefore investigates compounding and or compound word formation in Ígálà, a West Benue-Congo language spoken in north central Nigeria. Defining compoundhood and distinguishing compound words in Ígálà, the study shows, favours semantic criteria such as unity of concept, semantic specialization, permanent aspect, and unitary representation of concept above phonological and syntactic considerations. Compounding generally has been found to be a highly productive word formation process in Ígálà in terms of forms and functions. For instance, apart from Noun + Noun nominal compounds, other compound types such as verbal as well as synthetic compounds have been attested in the language. Besides, in addition to the general function of lexical expansion through creation of new lexical categories or lexemes, compounding has been used copiously in naming concepts, particularly foreign institutions, ideas, items, objects and or concepts that were hitherto non-existent in Ígálà.

The increasing extent of globalization has made foreign speakers interested in learning Indonesian. So, in this case the government is trying to meet these demands by opening the BIPA program. However, in BIPA learning there are still many obstacles. One of the problems with BIPA is pronunciation errors and the lack of fluency of foreign speakers in speaking Indonesian. This research aims to find and analyze morphological errors in affixation, reduplication and compound words by BIPA FCS UB students. Qualitative descriptive is used as the research method. The research data consists of morphological errors in affixation, reduplication and compound words of BIPA FCS UB students. Data sources were taken from interviews and test results by three BIPA FCS UB students from Egypt, South Korea and Pakistan. Data was collected using listening and note-taking techniques. After that, data analysis was carried out from the stages of identifying data, analyzing and drawing conclusions. The results of this research found morphological errors in affixation, reduplication and compound words by BIPA FCS UB students. Affixation errors lie in the morphophonemic processes, namely assimilation, adaptation and dissimilation. In the word reduplication, errors were found in complete and partial reduplication. In compound words, errors were found in idioms and compound words. This morphological problem occurs because of the differences in the typology of the BIPA student's country of origin and Indonesian in terms of affixation, reduplication and compound word formation. Therefore, it is necessary to deepen learning materials with appropriate learning media that are suitable for BIPA students.

The research aims to discover the types, word formations, and meanings of compound words which existed in song lyrics by Taylor Swift in 2014. The writers used descriptive qualitative method based on the McCharty theory, in which the writers applied it to determine the number of compound words are found in Taylor Swift’s song lyrics. The method described the findings of the research by describing it systematically with qualitative data analysis. In collecting the data, the writers did some steps: listening to the song lyrics of Taylor Swift, collecting the data of compound words, classifying the compound words into the types and formations, and getting the meanings of the compound words. From the data analysis, there were 17 compound words of 5 song lyrics. From the 17 compound words were classified into 11 compound noun (64,70%), 3 compound adjective (17,64%), and 9 compound verb (17,64%). The result indicated that compound word derived from compound noun was the highest.

General Background: Compound words are an integral part of A.N. Tikhonov’s Word Formation Dictionary of the Russian Language, reflecting the dynamic nature of the Russian lexicon. Specific Background: Tikhonov’s systematic approach categorizes compound words within a word-formation paradigm, showcasing their role at various stages of derivation. Knowledge Gap: Despite their significance, there is limited analysis on how compound words, especially from the быстрый (fast) family, influence the broader Russian word-formation system. Aims: This study aims to analyze the compound word family of быстрый and explore its role within Tikhonov's framework, demonstrating how compound words contribute to the linguistic flexibility and precision of the Russian language. Results: The analysis reveals that compound words derived from быстрый display a diverse array of meanings and grammatical forms, showcasing the productive nature of compound word formation across different parts of speech. Novelty: This study highlights the interconnectedness of word-formation families, with compound words serving as a bridge between different grammatical categories, thus contributing to the adaptability of the language. Implications: The findings underscore the importance of compound words in understanding the morphological evolution of Russian, offering insights into how lexemes evolve and adapt to meet communicative needs.

In Nepali language, compound word formation is mostly associated with inflection, derivation, and postposition attachment. Inflection occurs due to suffixation, whereas derivation is driven by both prefixation and suffixation. The compound word generated by the rules may produce lots of out-of-vocabulary words due to limited lexical resources and numerous exceptions. Hence, the machine learning approach can help to generate valid compounds and split them into valid morphemes that can be further used as a resource for spelling suggestions, information retrieval, and machine translation. In this research, a method to generate valid compounds from the corresponding compound splits (head word and prefix/suffix/ postpositions) is suggested. A BiLSTM based deep learning approach was used to generate and split the valid compound words. Publicly available Nepali Brihat Shabdakosh data from Nepal Academy and scraped news data were used for the experimentation. The obtained results were found to be outstanding compared to the rule-based approach applied to a similar job.

This study is entitled Compound Word Formation in “The Old Man and The Sea”. This study focuses on two problems; types of compound words found in the novel and the semantic transparency theypossess. The aims of this study are to find out the types of compound words and also to find and describe the semantic transparency of the compound words found in the novel.The data source used in this study is a novel written by Ernest Hemmingway entitled The Old Man and The Sea. The data which were compound words were collected by using documentation method whereas to analyze the data by using descriptive qualitative method. There were three theories used in this study. The main theories are proposed by O’Grady (1996) about the types of the compound and by Katamba (1993) about classifying the data. The theory proposed by Libben (1998) was used to describe the semantic transparency of the compound words. The results show that the types of compound words found in the novel are endocentric compound and exocentric compounds. However, the endocentric compound was more frequent than the exocentric compound. Based on the second problem, there are four types of semantic transparency ;they are (1) transparency of both members of the compound, (2) transparency of the head member – opacity of the non-head member, (3) transparency of the non-head member – opacity of the head member, (4) opacity of both members of the compound.

This study aims to describe the orthographic features, word formation and the meaning of compound words related to COVID-19 pandemics used in The Jakarta Post’s Health Column Article on Third Week of June 2020. There are three research questions in this study: (1) What are orthographic features found in the compound words, (2) What are the type of compound words and their lexical categories, and (3) How do the compound words create meaning. To answer the research question, the writer use the theory of morphology and semantics. The findings showed there are 34 compound words in The Jakarta Post’s Health Column on the third week of June 2020. The compound words found in this study are written mostly in one word. Then, the rest of compound words are written with a hyphen, and separately in two or three words. Based on the type of compound words, there are 82.35% compound noun, 11.75% compound adjective, and 5.9% compound verb. The most dominant lexical category is from compound nouns which are Noun + Noun and Adjective + Noun. Based on the meaning of compound words, there are 85.3% endocentric compounds and 14.7% exocentric compounds.

This study aimed to uncover the types of compound word formation and how the compound word formation processes of related new terms in the COVID-19 pandemic's online English news articles were formed. This study used Lieber (2009) and Plag’s (2002) compound word formation frameworks. The data were obtained from ten news articles related to the COVID-19 pandemic using a qualitative descriptive method. The results showed that there were so varied types of the derivation of compound word processes, namely coordinative, subordinative, and attributive. Meanwhile, based on the stress of compound, the study found that there were noun compound, endocentric compounds, exocentric compounds, and copulative compounds. The results of this study indicated that attributive compounds and subordinate compounds are equally dominant in the analysis. Besides, the findings revealed that noun is the most dominant words than verb or adverb. To conclude, the present study provides both theoretical and practical implications.