The influence of audiovisual design on emotional responses and presence in virtual reality environments

The study of sense of presence experienced in virtual reality environments has become an important area of research. The continued advancement of immersive technology offers more opportunities to examine how a subject becomes immersed in and interacts with a variety of virtual environments. The primary purpose of this research is to study the sense of presence while interacting with a traditional Virtual Reality Environment (Helmet-based system with a Head-tracking device) and compare it with a virtual reality environment using an Immersive Environment (Spherical-based Visualization environment). Two empirical experiments were investigated in this study, each consisting of thirty-five subjects. A virtual airplane scenario was created and simulated for the participants of both environments. Participants were given several questionnaires after completing the simulation. This study mainly focused on question 9 and 10 of that survey, which dealt with how much the participant felt present in the virtual environment, and if the presence of the real world could still be experienced while in the virtual environment. We found that the subjects felt more involved with the virtual environment while using the Immersive Environment simulation versus using the traditional helmet-based Virtual Reality Environment. There was a statistically significant difference in questions 9 and 10 between the Immersive Environment and traditional Virtual Reality Environment when those questions are considered in isolation. However there was not a significant difference in the total sense of presence between the two environments after analyzing the questions together. The primary differences between the questions were analyzed using the overall mean and the standard deviation. The Immersive Environment has a smaller deviation than the traditional Virtual Reality Environment, implying that the sense of presence response is more concentrated. However, the overall results demonstrate that both environments are almost equally effective, with the Immersive Environment having several slight advantages.

The use of virtual reality (VR) technology to induce emotional responses has recently become more common in psychological studies. The majority of these studies have been restricted to seated VR experiences where the participant remains in a sedentary position. The purpose of the current thesis is to utilise room-scale VR to increase presence, agency and potency of virtual environments (VE) designed to induce embodied emotional responses. The Evaluative Space Model (ESM) [Cacciopio et. al 2012] was used as the theoretical basis for this programme of research, which was particularly concerned with avoidance responses to negative stimuli, perception of threat and negativity bias. A number of unique VEs were created using Unreal Engine 4 designed to create an illusion of height and the potential for a virtual fall as a source of threat. These VEs were supplemented by additional tracking sensors and an integrated approach to data collection wherein behavioural interactions and movements within the VE were synchronised with ambulatory methods from psychophysiology, e.g. facial electromyography (fEMG), skin conductance level (SCL). The first study (N=20) utilised a VE that requires participants to walk on a wooden plank between the rooftops of two buildings, two versions of the VE were created: sedentary version operated via gamepad controller and a room scale version with natural sensorimotor mappings. The study revealed greater psychophysiological reactivity for the room-scale version of the environment. The second study (N=34) introduced an elaborated room-scale VE where participants must traverse a grid of translucent ice blocks suspended at height in order to reach an end-goal within a physical space of 9m2. This grid contained three types of ice block: solid (low-threat), crack (mid-threat) or fall (high threat). The number of crack and fall blocks were increased over three levels of the VE in order to manipulate threat. The foot movements of participants were tracked as the primary mode of interaction with the VE. The study revealed: (i) higher incidence of risk-averse behaviours as threat increased, (ii) this pattern of behaviour was enhanced for participants with higher levels of trait neuroticism, and (iii) greater reactivity from the corrugator muscle in the period following a two-feet movement. The third study (N=20) represented an extension of study two where a significantly larger version of the ice block VE was created in a physical space of 27m2. In this experiment, the level of threat (i.e. number of crack and fall blocks) was increased, sustained and decreased in order to study adaptation to reduced threat level. In addition, a ‘ground level’ version of the VE was utilised as a control to study the effect of virtual height in isolation. The results of this study revealed: (i) participants adjusted behaviour to increased threat and decreased threat, but only in the presence of virtual height, and (ii) increased activation of zygomaticus during interactions with crack blocks, which suggests this muscle may be associated with a ‘grimace’ response in this context. The final experimental chapter represents a re-analyses of the data from studies 2 and 3 designed to explore individual differences as predictors of risk averse behaviour in response to the threat. These analyses identified trait neuroticism and age as traits that significantly influenced the magnitude of the negativity gradient in response to threat. The implications of the research for studying emotional experiences in VR are discussed.

Background Freezing of gait (FoG) is a common target of rehabilitative interventions for people with Parkinson disease (PD). Virtual reality (VR) holds potential for advancing research and clinical management of FoG through flexible creation of FoG-provoking environments that are not easily or safely replicated in the clinic. Objective The aim of this study was to investigate whether VR environments that replicate FoG-provoking situations would exacerbate gait impairments associated with FoG compared to unobstructed VR and physical laboratory environments. Methods Gait characteristics (pace, rhythm, variability, asymmetry, and postural control domains) and festination were measured using motion capture while people with PD walked in VR environments based on FoG-provoking situations (doorway, hallway, and crowd environments) compared to unobstructed VR and physical laboratory environments. The effect of VR environments was assessed using one-way repeated measures ANOVAs with planned contrasts. Results Ten participants (mean age 74.1 years, 3 females, Hoehn and Yahr stage 2–3) with PD who self-reported FoG participated. Gait speed and step length were reduced in all VR environments compared to the physical laboratory. Step width was wider, step length was more variable, and festination was more common for some of the VR environments compared to the physical laboratory environment. Compared to the unobstructed virtual laboratory environment, step length was more variable in VR crowd and doorway environments. Conclusions The exacerbation of gait impairments that are characteristic precursors of FoG in FoG-provoking VR environments supports the potential utility of VR technology in the assessment and treatment of gait impairments in PD. Implications for rehabilitation Freezing increases fall risk and reduces quality of life in Parkinson disease (PD). Virtual reality (VR) can simulate visuospatial environments that provoke freezing. Immersive VR doorway, hallway, and crowd environments were developed. Gait speed slowed when people with PD walked overground in all VR environments. Step variability and festination increased in freeze-provoking environments.

The absence of constraints is one of the major limitations in current Virtual Reality (VR) environments. Without constraints, it is difficult to perform precise 3D interactive manipulations in VR environments and precise solid modelling in VR environments cannot be guaranteed. In this paper, constraints are incorporated into the VR environment for intuitive and precise solid modelling. A hierarchically structured constraint-based data model is developed to support solid modelling in the VR environment. Solid modelling in the VR environment is precisely performed in an intuitive manner through constraint-based manipulations. Constraint-based manipulations are accompanied with automatic constraint recognition and precise constraint satisfaction to establish the hierarchically structured constraint-based data model and are realized by allowable motions for precise 3D interactions in the VR environment. The allowable motions are represented as a mathematical matrix for conveniently deriving allowable motions from constraints. A procedure-based degree-of-freedom incorporation approach for 3D constraint solving is presented for deriving the allowable motions. A rule-based constraint recognition engine is developed for both constraint-based manipulations and implicitly incorporating constraints into the VR environment. A prototype system has been implemented for precise solid modelling in an intuitive manner through constraint-based manipulations in the VR environment.

This paper focuses on emotional effects of storytelling-based hand gesture interaction in a VR (Virtual Reality) environment. Unlike using depth cameras like Kinect sensor, a wearable band is proposed to detect users’ hand gestures to create a virtual reality film. The VR film is created using a storytelling-based hand gesture recognition system and focuses on the users’ emotional effects. For the design, the hand gestures suitable for the story in the film are derived from research on users and are applied to the VR film titled ‘Not Alone’. In order to recognize the hand gestures of the user, the data collected from the wearable band is analyzed to classify movements of the hand through machine learning, which helps to solve problems of the existing hand gestures. This study proposes hand gesture interaction that is most suitable for users with two free hands in the head mounted display HMD (Head Mounted Display) based VR environment and tries to maximize users’ emotional responses in narrative-based film content by developing storytelling-based hand gesture interaction.

Impairments in reaching and grasping have been well-documented in patients with post-stroke hemiparesis. Patients have deficits in spatial and temporal coordination and may use excessive trunk displacement to assist arm transport during performance of upper limb tasks. Studies of therapeutic effectiveness have shown that repetitive task-specific practice may improve motor function outcomes. Movement retraining may be optimized when done in virtual reality (VR) environments. Environments created with VR technology can incorporate elements essential to maximize motor learning, such as repetitive and varied task practice, performance feedback and motivation. Haptic technology can also be incorporated into VR environments to enhance the user's sense of presence and to make motor tasks more ecologically relevant to the participant. As a first step in the validation of the use of VR environments for rehabilitation, it is necessary to demonstrate that movements made in virtual environments are similar to those made in equivalent physical environments. This has been verified in a series of studies comparing pointing and reaching/grasping movements in physical and virtual environments. Because of the attributes of VR, rehabilitation of the upper limb using VR environments may lead to better rehabilitation outcomes than conventional approaches.

Engaging in physical exercise in a virtual reality (VR) environment has been reported to improve physical effort and affective states. However, these conclusions might be influenced by experimental design factors, such as comparing VR environments against a non-VR environment without actively controlling for the presence of visual input in non-VR conditions. The present study addressed this issue to examine affective and attentional states in a virtual running task. Participants (n = 40), completed a 21 min run on a treadmill at 70% of Vmax. One group of participants ran in a computer-generated VR environment that included other virtual runners while another group ran while viewing neutral images. Participants in both conditions showed a pattern of reduced positive affect and increased tension during the run with a return to high positive affect after the run. In the VR condition, higher levels of immersive tendencies and attention/absorption in the virtual environment were associated with more positive affect after the run. In addition, participants in the VR condition focused attention more on external task-relevant stimuli and less to internal states than participants in the neutral images condition. However, the neutral images condition produced less negative affect and more enjoyment after the run than the VR condition. The finding suggest that the effects of exercising in a VR environment will depend on individual difference factors (e.g., attention/absorption in the virtual world) but it may not always be better than distracting attention away from exercise-related cues.

Virtual reality (VR) provides a completely digital world of interaction which enables the users to modify, edit, and transform digital elements in a responsive way. Mixed reality (MR), which is the result of blending the digital world and the physical world together, brings new advancements and challenges to human, computer and environment interactions. This paper focuses on adapting the already-existing methods and tools in architecture to both VR and MR environments under sustainable architectural design domain. For this purpose, we benefit from the semantically enriched data platforms of Building information modelling (BIM) tools, the performance calculation functions of building energy simulation tools while transcending these data into VR and MR environments. In this way, we were able to merge these diverse data for the virtual design activity. Nine participants have already tested the initial prototype of MR-based only interaction environment in our previous study [1]. According to the feedbacks, the user interface and interaction mechanisms were updated and the environment was made accessible also in VR. These updates made four types of interactions possible in MR and VR: 1) MR environment using HoloLens with gestures, 2) MR environment using HoloLens with a clicker, 3) VR environment using HTC Vive with two controllers, and 4) HoloLens emulator with a mouse. All these interaction cases were tested by 21 architecture students in an in-house workshop. In this workshop, we collected data on presence, usability, and technology acceptance of these cases. Our results show that interaction in a VR environment is the most natural interaction type and the participants were eager to use both MR and VR environments instead of an emulator. To our best of knowledge, this is the first comparative study of a BIM-based architectural design medium in both VR and MR environments.

Controlling characters in a virtual reality (VR) environment can lead to the interiorization of their body dimensions by the recipients. The possible preservation of these distortions in their psyche will indicate a high degree of psychological impact of a VR on a person and the potential danger of developing depersonalization of the recipients and their dependence on such stimulation. The study of the stability of these distortions is necessary in the context of ensuring the safety of the impact of VR environments on the human psyche. The main focus of the study is on the perception distortions of human body dimensions, as they are sensed by people immersed in a VR environment, and their dynamics depending on the number of immersions. The impact of the virtual reality environment was simulated using the Freedom Locomotion VR application. One virtual reality immersion session took 15 minutes. To obtain psychometric indicators of the subjects perception of their own body dimensions, the technique Measurements according to M. Feldenkrais was used. All the participants (N = 45, three experimental groups) underwent a mandatory preliminary measurement using this technique (several hours before exposure) and a final measurement (one day after the last exposure). At the same time, the results of preliminary measurements were taken as indicators of the subjects habitual perception of their own body dimensions and were considered in each data processing as a comparison group. Free movement in a VR environment leads to distortions in the subjects perception of their own body dimensions. In all the experimental groups, there was a tendency to exaggerate body dimensions immediately after immersions, which indicates the qualitative similarity of these distortions. The effect of repetitive immersion in a VR environment on the perception of body dimensions is that it increases awareness in perceiving body parts that are least active at the time of immersion. Controlling an anthropomorphic character in a VR leads to an increase in the subjective significance of the recipients own body perception and an increased concentration of attention on the parameters least involved in immersion. The results of the study show that an increased level of awareness in perceiving their own bodies is characteristic of the subjects who have experience of repetitive immersions in a VR environment in the guise of an anthropomorphic character. Controlling a bodily projection in a VR headset does not cause its long-term interiorization, but has a positive effect on the formation of personal corporeality.

Recent advances in computer technology have significantly facilitated the use of virtual environments (VE) for small and medium enterprises (SME). However, achieving visual realism in such VE requires high investments in terms of time and effort, while its usefulness has not yet become apparent from research. Other qualities of VE, such as the use of large displays, proved its effectiveness in enhancing the individual user's spatial cognition. The current study assessed whether the same benefits apply for visual realism in VE. Thirty-two participants were divided into two groups, who explored either a photorealistic or a nonrealistic supermarket presented on a large screen. The participants were asked to navigate through the supermarket on a predetermined route. Subsequently, spatial learning was tested in four pen-and-paper tests that assessed how accurately they had memorized the route and the environment's spatial layout. The study revealed increased spatial learning from the photorealistic compared to the nonrealistic supermarket. Specifically, participants performed better on tests that involved egocentric spatial knowledge. The results suggest visual realism is useful because it increases the user's spatial knowledge in the VE. Therefore, the current study provides clear evidence that it is worthwhile for SME to invest in achieving visual realism in VE.

At present, the research on emotion in the virtual environment is limited to the subjective materials, and there are very few studies based on objective physiological signals. In this article, the authors conducted a user experiment to study the user emotion experience of virtual reality (VR) by comparing subjective feelings and physiological data in VR and two-dimensional display (2D) environments. First, they analyzed the data of self-report questionnaires, including Self-assessment Manikin (SAM), Positive And Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) and Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ). The result indicated that VR causes a higher level of arousal than 2D, and easily evokes positive emotions. Both 2D and VR environments are prone to eye fatigue, but VR is more likely to cause symptoms of dizziness and vertigo. Second, they compared the differences of electrocardiogram (ECG), skin temperature (SKT) and electrodermal activity (EDA) signals in two circumstances. Through mathematical analysis, all three signals had significant differences. Participants in the VR environment had a higher degree of excitement, and the mood fluctuations are more frequent and more intense. In addition, the authors used different machine learning models for emotion detection, and compared the accuracies on VR and 2D datasets. The accuracies of all algorithms in the VR environment are higher than that of 2D, which corroborated that the volunteers in the VR environment have more obvious skin electrical signals, and had a stronger sense of immersion. This article effectively compensated for the inadequacies of existing work. The authors first used objective physiological signals for experience evaluation and used different types of subjective materials to make contrast. They hope their study can provide helpful guidance for the engineering reality of virtual reality.

The absence of constraints when interacting with virtual objects is one of the major limitations in the current Virtual Reality (VR) environments. Without constraints, it is difficult to perform precise interactive manipulations and precise solid modelling in VR environments cannot be ensured. In this paper, constraint-based 3D direct manipulations are acquired through incorporating constraints into the VR environment for intuitive and precise solid modelling. Solid modelling in the VR environment is precisely performed in an intuitive manner through precise constraint-based manipulations. Constraint-based manipulations are accompanied by automatic constraint recognition and precise constraint satisfaction and are realized by allowable motions for precise 3D interactions in the VR environment. The allowable motions are represented as a mathematical matrix for conveniently deriving the allowable motions from constraints. A procedure-based degree-of-freedom incorporation approach for 3D constraint solving is presented to derive the allowable motions. A rule-based constraint recognition engine is developed for both constraint-based manipulations and implicitly incorporating constraints into the VR environment. Some special constraint-based manipulations are also implemented as modelling operations for solid modelling in the VR environment.

The impact of digital scents on behavioral health in a restorative virtual reality environment

Spatiotemporal gait deviations in a virtual reality environment

Walking rehabilitation for individuals with lower limb amputation plays a crucial role in effectively using prostheses. The development of new technologies, such as virtual environments, will enhance our ability to improve walking in this population. To explore the potential of virtual reality in lower limb amputee rehabilitation by using immersive virtual reality environments to address gait and balance issues and evaluate outcomes in individuals with lower limb amputation. A systematic review. The search strategy, validated by all authors, conducted in five electronic databases (Web of Science, PubMed, Science Direct, CINAHL Complet, EBSCOhost) from inception to September 2023. To be eligible, articles were required to have a virtual reality environment as an intervention in persons with lower limb amputation with the intent of improving or evaluating their gait or balance. There was no restriction for study design or type of outcome measure. We screened 1577 documents that appeared in the search, thirty-three studies after the full-text evaluation met our inclusion criteria. Ten studies used non-immersive, eighteen used semi-immersive and three used fully immersive virtual reality simulations. Virtual reality environments have been used to test and train individuals with lower limb amputation. All RCTs had focused on non-immersive virtual environment like video games, and most participants were transtibial K3-K4 level amputees. The effectiveness of non-immersive, semi-immersive, and fully immersive virtual reality simulations for improving balance in individuals with amputation needs more research, especially in combination with biofeedback and newer gaming technologies. This approach has the potential to enhance rehabilitation for lower limb amputees, but need specific outcome measures for evaluation. The search strategy, validated by all authors, conducted in 5 electronic databases (Web of Science, PubMed, Science Direct, CINAHL Complet, EBSCOhost) from inception to September 2023. To be eligible, articles were required to have a VR environment as an intervention in persons with lower limb amputation with the intent of improving or evaluating their gait or balance. There was no restriction for study design or type of outcome measure. We screened 1577 documents that appeared in the search, and 33 studies after the full-text evaluation met our inclusion criteria. Ten studies used nonimmersive, 18 used semiimmersive, and 3 used fully immersive VR simulations. Virtual reality environments have been used to test and train individuals with lower limb amputation. All randomized controlled trials had focused on nonimmersive virtual environment like video games, and most participants were transtibial K3-K4 level amputees. Non-immersive VR simulations like video games can be effective for improving balance-related clinical test results in persons with amputation and may have superior benefits for older adults. Semi-immersive VR simulations can improve balance and gait symmetry. Fully immersive VR simulations in combination with subjects' biofeedback need more research to engage in walking and dynamic balance rehabilitation.