THE IMPORTANCE OF LOWER BODY TRAINING IN XENOPHON’S CONCEPTION OF PHYSICAL FITNESS AND EDUCATION

Physical Education, Exercise, Fitness and Sports: Early PM&R Leaders Build a Strong Foundation

The Chinese students' physical fitness was weakening from 1985 to 2005. Since 1995, almost all the physical fitness indicators have showed substantial decline over times. This study took this issue as the breakthrough point to examine how the physical education (PE) curriculum reform affected the students’ physical fitness in China. The primary and secondary school physical fitness literature has been reviewed. This study summarized the change of PE reform theory and practice during this period. Using the descriptive statistics, the proportions of physical activity in the PE curriculum of Chinese primary and secondary schools were analyzed. In the reform process of school PE in China from single dimension to multi-dimension, the generalization of PE function has blurred the essential function of physical fitness. The PE curriculum of 1992 in Chinese mandatory education was implemented for ten years. During this period, the economy has developed rapidly, and the curriculum showed a relatively weaken trend. Compared with the past curriculum, the PE curriculum of 1997 in Chinese high school has reduced the requirement of physical activity portion in PE classes. Furthermore, the physical activity and physical fitness evaluation were not paid enough attention in school evaluation and assessment. Due to insufficient course consciousness and ability, PE teachers have weakened the effectiveness of physical activity in PE teaching practice. Compared with the social, economic, and cultural development of China during this period, the reform of PE curriculum showed the weakening trend, which coincided with the tendency of students' physical fitness decline. Physical activity and fitness are the foundations to reach school PE goals. The weakening of physical activity and fitness would lead to the difficulty for students to achieve the objectives of strengthening students' health, cultivating interests and habits, mastering techniques, and improving motor ability in school PE. It is recommended to examine the tendency of continuous weakening of physical fitness in the current reform of PE in China, and take effective measures to improve the impact of insufficient physical activities on students’ physical health.

Physical Education Policy Compliance and Children's Physical Fitness

In the system of physical education and sports training, physical training is one of the main areas. It is aimed at creating a strong motor and functional base for all other types of training. Equally important is the significance of physical training in the system of education, upbringing, industrial work, in the national army, legislatures, health and medical institutions. The problem of physical training is especially considered in educational institutions of physical education, when studying a number of academic disciplines: the course of specialization, theory and methods of teaching a chosen sport, improving sports and pedagogical skills. An attempt is made to generalize the origins of the problem of physical fitness, its current state in the system of physical education and sports training, as well as development perspectives. Physical fitness and attempts to assess it have a long history, but its direction and content have changed in various formations. From military physical training in Ancient Greece, the gladiatorial system in Rome, knight education in the Middle Ages, the technological revolution in Modern times, physical training in our times in the system of physical education and sports training has received its scientific and practical proof as a specific concept and type of professional training.

Data about effects of exercise training in adolescents with intellectual disability (ID) are very limited. This study investigated the effect of 2 different frequencies of the same intensity and total training volume of combined exercise training on indices of body composition, physical fitness, and lipid profile in overweight and obese adolescents with ID. A total of 45 overweight and obese adolescents with ID aged 14-22 years with a total IQ 45-70 received combined exercise training 3 times a week (CET3) for 30 sessions (10 weeks; n = 15), twice a week (CET2) for 30 sessions (15 weeks; n = 15), or no training (10 weeks; n = 15). Groups were matched for age, sex, and education form. Before and after the intervention period, indices of body composition, physical fitness and lipid profile have been evaluated. Compared to the control group, CET3 resulted in a significant improvement of physical fitness, obesity indices, and lipid profile of the participants. Comparing CET2 with CET3, no significantly different evolutions were noticed, except for lower limb strength in favor of exercising 3 times a week. In conclusion, exercising 2 times a week, which is more feasible and practical for participants and guidance, has the same health beneficial effects as 3 times per week in overweight and obese adolescents with ID in short-term training.

Purpose: To analyse the engagement and participation of students with varying levels of overall physical fitness in physical education and health classes in different age groups. How does students’ overall physical fitness level influence their engagement and participation in physical education and health classes over the course in different age groups? The study provides insights into how physical fitness and engagement evolve over time and it differs from other studies that focus solely on physical performance. Methods: Quasi-experimental research design was used. A total of 76 students participated in the study. The combination of scientific literature analysis, surveys, fitness assessments, pedagogical observations, and statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and the inferential statistics) offers a multi-dimensional perspective on the relationship between physical fitness and engagement. The respondents provided data anonymously, the study was conducted with the permission of the Research Ethics Committee of Latvian Academy of Sport Education. Results: The results indicated that students’ overall physical fitness improved over the semester, which correlated with increased engagement in physical education classes (rs = –.575; p < 0.05). Fitness assessment data showed that better-conditioned students participated more actively and exhibited more positive emotions (rs = .380; p < 0.01). In contrast, students with lower physical fitness levels were more likely to miss classes, showed lower motivation (rs = –.554; p < 0.01), and demonstrated less emotional involvement (rs = –.473; p < 0.01). Conclusions: Mostly in all ages, students with higher general physical fitness scores are more actively engaged in physical education and health lessons, which indicates that more inclusive pedagogical approaches are needed to promote the development of physical literacy in students. The findings highlight the need for tailored physical education approaches to support students with lower fitness levels, offering actionable insights for teachers to foster greater inclusivity and motivation of the engagement in physical education classes. Keywords: Student engagement, student participation, physical education and health class, student physical fitness

The decline in physical activity (PA) from youth to young adulthood is evident, though limited research has addressed whether specific factors of K–12 physical education (PE) have any influence on outcomes during college years. This study examined the relationship between college students’ physical fitness and PA behavior and their high school PE experiences. College student volunteers (n = 537) completed a fitness assessment examining aerobic endurance, muscular endurance, body composition, and blood glucose and lipids. A survey examined current PA and PE experience in high school (number of semesters, enjoyment, requirements). Analyses were conducted separately for males and females. Pearson correlations examined relationships between fitness, behavioral, and PE outcomes. Differences in behavioral and fitness outcomes were compared with t tests. The final sample was 56.6% male (n = 298) and 43.4% female (n = 227). For males, analyses revealed that PE enjoyment was significantly related to VO2 max, curl-ups, and vigorous physical activity. Number of semesters of PE in high school was negatively associated with triglycerides and total cholesterol and positively associated with moderate physical activity. Those who took PE when it was not required were more vigorously active than those who did not. Males who had a waiver for PE had a lower body fat percentage, performed more curl-ups, and were more vigorously and moderately active compared with those who had no waiver. Number of semesters of PE in high school was negatively associated with triglycerides and total cholesterol. PE enjoyment was positively associated with VO2 max and push-ups. For females, those who took PE when it wasn’t required had a higher VO2 max and vigorous physical activity compared with those who did not. Females with a waiver for PE class had higher triglycerides and total cholesterol compared with those who did not. Females in a coed PE class had a higher BMI and VO2 max compared with those in a combination class. Effective PE programs that encourage participation and educate students on the benefits of physical activity have the capability to establish lifelong healthy and active habits that translate to the college years, and likely beyond. The main findings of this study have the potential to influence the policies regarding PE requirements for school-aged students in all states, such as possibly increasing PE requirements for all grades and discovering certain aspects of PE that could make it more enjoyable for a larger number of students.Subscribe to TPE

Background
\nInsufficient physical activity and physical fitness are associated with cardiovascular diseases and back pain in adults. But cardiovascular risk factors and risk factors for back pain can be detected earlier in life.
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\nAims
\nTherefore, the aim of this dissertation study was to examine associations between physical fitness, physical activity behaviour, anthropometrics and retinal vessel diameters, as a risk factor of cardiovascular disease, and spinal flexibility or spinal posture, as risk factors for back pain, in a cohort of Swiss children aged 6 to 8 years. Further, the influence of parental education, household income and nationality on physical fitness, retinal vessel diameters and risk factors for back pain was analysed. Additionally, through the Sportcheck project the physical fitness skills of all first-graders of the canton Basel-Stadt could be classified in order to arrange performance-linked additional physical education lessons. The goal was to increase children’s physical activity, knowing that the motivation is higher when children are having a similar level in physical education classes.
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\nMethods
\nTherefore, 1314 children conducted a 20 m shuttle run test, a 20 m sprint, a jumping sidewards and a balancing backwards test. Also height and weight were measured and the body mass index (BMI) calculated. The optional measurements of retinal vessel diameters, using a Static Retinal Vessel Analyzer, were completely conducted in 391 children. Measurements of spinal flexibility and spinal posture, using a hand-held computer-assisted electromechanical device, the MediMouse, were performed in 395 children. Additional proxy-reported questionnaires about physical activity behaviour, parental education, household income and nationality were completed by 340 children. 
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\nResults
\nIt was found that cardiorespiratory fitness and indoor activity had a positive influence on retinal vessel health. Physically fit children had a more flexible spinal inclination and pelvic tilt than their peers. Boys with a high level of cardiorespiratory fitness had additionally more often a normal spinal posture. Parental education level, household income and migrant background were negatively related to the physical fitness levels and anthropometrics of the schoolchildren. Moreover, children from less educated parents and with a migrant background were spending more time in front of a screen than their peers. By the use of the physical fitness tests 351 (27%) children were recommended for the movement promotion class and 140 (11%) first-graders for the talent promotion program Talent Eye. The remaining 823 (62%) children were recommended for an additional physical sports lesson. Compared to the year before 43 more children registered for movement promotion classes (2012/2013: 11 children, 2013/2014: 54).
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\nConclusions
\nIn conclusion physical fitness showed a beneficial association with cardiovascular and back health and is related to parental education level, household income and migrant background of first-graders. On the basis of the Sportcheck study the physical fitness level of first-graders of Basel-Stadt could be classified for additional physical education lessons. Besides, more children registered for movement promotion classes. Future follow-ups will analyse whether on the basis of the Sportcheck children will be more active in the long-term.
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Background and Study Aim. The purpose of the study is to develop and experimentally substantiate the efficiency of methods to improve the physical fitness (PF) of students in physical education classes using CrossFit means. Material and Methods. The studies were conducted at the University with first-year students and involved 44 students of the control group and 52 students of the experimental group aged 17 to 19 years. Three versions of the experimental program to improve the students’ PF in physical education classes using CrossFit means were developed. The students’ PF level was determined according to the results of performing the State tests of the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine: 100 m running (s), standing long jump (cm), pull-ups and cross bar dips (number); hanging leg raises to the crossbar (number); 1000 m running (min, s); shuttle run 4x9 m and 10x10 m (s); trunk forward bending (cm). The level of students’ functional fitness was determined according to the indices of heart rate (HR), blood pressure, time of breath-holding while performing Stange’s test, lung vital capacity. Results. In the process of the pedagogical experiment more pronounced positive changes in the indices of physical and functional fitness were observed in students of the experimental group as compared to those of the control group, the functional reserves of the heart and motor system of students increased by the end of the experiment. The efficiency of four-hour classes a week according to the experimental program manifested itself in the increase of strength, strength endurance, speed and agility during a performance of motor tests; a decrease in resting heart rate, an increase of the degree of HR increment under load (relative to the resting level), an increase of HR recovery at the first minute after the load. Mathematical models of interrelations of separate somatic and vegetative parameters in the process of development and improvement of motor skills under the influence of the experimental program of physical education with the use of CrossFit means were developed and specified. Mathematical models reflect mechanisms of increase of functional reserves of heart and motor system of students, their interrelation in the process of improving the results in motor tests under the influence of CrossFit means. Conclusions. The results of the research confirm the higher efficiency of the physical education experimental method with the use of specially developed complexes of CrossFit® physical exercises in comparison with the generally accepted program of the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine. The efficiency of the experimental program’s impact on the physical state of the students is confirmed by an increase in the level of development of motor qualities, an increase in the economy of the body functioning at rest, an increase in the functional reserves of the heart and the motor system.

The development of physical education and health courses is not only an important element in the current stage of college education, but also a crucial measure to enhance students’ physical fitness and health. For this reason, this paper is based on intelligent data analysis to build a system to research changes in students’ physical fitness. This paper first analyzes the user and functional requirements for a physical fitness analysis. The clustering algorithm is studied, as is a system for analyzing student body mass, consisting of a browser, a server, and a numerical student body mass testing instrument. Finally, an intelligent analysis of the physical education and health curriculum is carried out using the system. From the empirical analysis, it can be seen that the value of the regression coefficient of physical education and health curriculum is 0.150 (P < 0.001), and the physical education and health curriculum has a significant positive impact relationship on students’ physical fitness, and the percentage of school support mediation effect is 24.52%. In addition, students’ speed, endurance, explosive strength, and power improved with the increase in physical fitness education and grade level. A significant correlation exists between the comprehensiveness and organization of the physical fitness curriculum, with a correlation coefficient of 0.285. Meanwhile, the mean value of the overall evaluation of the system in this paper is 1.452, and it is excellent in terms of simple use, with a mean value as high as 1.475. The synthesis shows that the construction of the physical fitness system in this paper is able to effectively analyze the data of physical education and health courses, improve the physical fitness of the students, and promote the healthy development of students.

Physical education requirements in the United States vary and are often left to local districts in each state to decide. Considering the relationship between physical activity and obesity and physical fitness with mortality, requirements relating to national recommendations appear important. Long term implications of participation in physical education are contradictory at best with the limited studies performed concluding conflicting results. PURPOSE: To examine the relationship between years of participation in physical education at a high school level and levels of physical activity and fitness in college students and adults. METHODS: Forty-one participants ranging in age from 18-65 (mean age 33.6) were recruited utilizing an inter-collegiate mailing system. Participants completed a self-administered IPAQ long-form questionnaire as well as additional physical education related questions. Participants also completed a YMCA Step Test. RESULTS: When comparing participant results to national recommendations for physical activity 6 of 41 met vigorous physical activity guidelines (14.6%), and 0 met guidelines for moderate physical activity. When adding in vigorous outdoor housework those meeting vigorous guidelines went up to 11 of 41 participants (26.8%), and when adding in moderate outdoor and indoor housework those meeting moderate guidelines went up to 4 of 41 (9.7%). Mean score of 4.5 on the YMCA Step Test for all participants was between below average and poor with a standard deviation of nearly two scoring levels. No significant relationships were found when comparing time spent in physical education classes (required or total) to recalled moderate physical activity and fitness levels in college students and adults, while a significant relationship was seen when comparing the time spent in physical education classes (required and total) to recalled vigorous physical activity and fitness levels in college students and adults (p=0.02). CONCLUSION: Further study to examine the relationship between physical education and long-term physical activity is needed with particular attention being paid to physical education requirements and their variances.

The article examines the content of the unity of physical and military-patriotic education of primary and high school students. It is noted that the relevance of the study is due to the need of society for a decisive, self- sufficient, self-confident, responsible personality who is able to participate in public life and is ready to defend Ukraine with arms. It is noted that general secondary education institutions do not pay enough attention to the physical and military-patriotic education of primary and high school students under martial law. In many general secondary education institutions, military-patriotic and physical education is organized and conducted at a low scientific and methodological level. In the course of the study, we found out that, given the age characteristics of primary and high school students, teachers should develop their physical fitness and foster readiness to defend Ukraine as a value and motivational fitness for military and patriotic activities.We believe that teachers should adhere to the following tasks and recommendations during educational activities: to conduct lectures, trainings on physical and military-patriotic education aimed at forming the basic components of patriotism, physical and military-patriotic education in students; to involve students in intellectual competitions; to involve students in physical education and sports activities, sports competitions with military- patriotic themes; to involve students in creative games-quests aimed at physical and military-patriotic education. Based on the generalization of the achievements of scientists and practitioners on the problem of physical and military-patriotic education of students, we have identified criteria and indicators of physical and military-patriotic education of primary and high school students, which should be used to determine the levels and more.

Associations between physical activity, fitness, and academic achievement

The role of basketball-based physical education in enhancing students' physical fitness has been extensively documented, with numerous studies highlighting its benefits. In China, where sports and physical education are integral components of the educational curriculum, the importance of understanding the specific impacts of basketball-based physical education cannot be overstated. This study focuses on the technical vocational college setting in Fujian, China, aiming to fill a crucial research gap and address the need for tailored physical education programs. Basketball has been widely promoted and accepted in major universities across China, garnering broad support from both students and faculty. Wang (2024) emphasizes that with its increasing incorporation into university physical education programs, basketball significantly impacts students' physical fitness and athletic abilities. The current educational reforms in China necessitate the continual optimization of teaching methods and approaches to establish a solid foundation for the physical and mental development of students. Sui (2024) explores the impact of community basketball programs on high school students' physical and mental health in Guangzhou, highlighting improvements in physical fitness, social skills, and mental well-being. This study underscores the broader benefits of basketball beyond mere physical health, emphasizing its role in fostering social interaction and emotional resilience. Additionally, Shao et al. (2022) examine the individual characteristics of physical and mental development and their connection with regular physical exercises when playing basketball. Their findings suggest that basketball enhances motor fitness, moral, volitional, and mental qualities, as well as creativity and decision-making skills in rapidly changing circumstances. This holistic development is crucial for students, particularly in a competitive and fast-paced society like China. Butenko (2023) presents the effectiveness of a comprehensive use of sports games, including basketball, during extracurricular activities for high school students. The study found significant improvements in physical performance, physical qualities, and health indicators, demonstrating the high potential of integrating sports games into physical education programs to enhance students' overall fitness and health. As a teacher and coach in a technical vocational college in Fujian, China, the researcher has observed the transformative impact of sports, particularly basketball, on students' lives. Professional experience has shown that students engaged in basketball not only develop better physical fitness but also exhibit improved teamwork, leadership skills, and emotional resilience. These observations have fueled the researcher's passion for integrating basketball into the physical education curriculum and inspired a systematic exploration of its broader impacts. The researcher's personal motivation stems from a deep-seated belief in the power of sports to shape character and foster holistic development. Having been a basketball player, the researcher has experienced the discipline, dedication, and camaraderie that the sport instills. These values are essential for students, especially those in technical vocational education, as they prepare for their future careers and personal lives. Despite the known benefits of basketball-based physical education, there is a significant gap in research specifically targeting technical vocational colleges in China. Most existing studies focus on general high school or university settings, leaving a void in understanding how basketball impacts students in technical vocational education, who may have different needs and challenges. This study addresses this gap by focusing on a technical vocational college in Fujian, China. It aims to provide evidence-based insights into how basketball-based physical education influences various aspects of students' physical fitness, including physical attributes development, motor skills enhancement, cardiovascular fitness, strength and power development, flexibility and agility, coordination and balance, mental and emotional benefits, social interaction and teamwork, skill development and performance, and health and fitness awareness. By filling this research gap, the study seeks to inform policy and practice in physical education, providing valuable recommendations for optimizing physical education programs to enhance the health and fitness outcomes of vocational students.

Objective Research purpose: This research aims at giving an comprehensive summary of the current situation of physical training of Chinese ice hockey team and helps to grasping the key points of their physical training, innovating the specific training methods, and improving the competitive performance of sports teams.
 Methods Research methods: “Literature research” is the main method of this research. The authors have consulted CNKI, WWW, Wiper net, Knowledge Base of Sports Resources, EBSCO host and some other databases and analyzed 45 valuable articles in total.
 Results Research result: The research results can be analyzed from three aspects--physical stamina requirement of players, training theories or methods, and physical fitness evaluation of players.
 1 Physical stamina requirement of players
 Ice hockey is an aperiodic sport with a repeated alternately of high, medium and low intensity, which is characterized by intermittent high intensity exercise and high antagonism. The sports’ mode is 70: 2: 30, which means players have 70 seconds to play and two minutes to rest each time, and the whole match will take 30 minutes. The blood urea, creatine kinase and serum testosterone of players will significantly change after the competition. Most of their heart rate will be above 70 percent of the maximum rate and some athletes’ blood lactic acid value will reach to 17.1 mmol / L. Therefore physical stamina training is necessary for them.
 2 Training theories or methods
 2.1 Characteristics of physical training load and periodicity
 Athletes’ physical training presents periodic changes. Specifically, their competitive state presents a pattern of formation, maintenance and temporarily fading with the change of training load. According to the theory of cycle and the principle of competitive sports training, some domestic researchers have established an annual cyclical training structure for the national women hockey team, and have achieved ideal results in practice. The annual cyclical training structure consists of 5 levels, 3 periods, 7 phases, 9 middle cycles and several different types of small cycles. In preparation for the 21st Vancouver Winter Olympics, the national women hockey team have accepted 482.5 hours physical training , accounting for 47 percent of the total training volume.
 2.2 Strength quality
 The special strength of ice hockey consists of maximum strength, speed strength and endurance strength. Both land and ice strength training are included, which have their own advantages and disadvantages. During the preparation period, Canadian fast strength training method, which is a kind of land strength training, can be used in general strength training stage, and the combination of land and ice training methods can be adopted in special strength training stage. And the method of simulating competition scene with the combination of special tactics is usually needed for the purpose of developing special strength. Step compression, impact exercise, waist load and skate weighting can effectively enhance the special strength while hooting strength requires special training methods.
 2.3 Speed quality
 The speed of ice hockey include “simple and complex reaction speed”, “thinking process speed”, “starting speed”, “paragraph speed”, “fast braking of action”, “fast completion of technical action and convergence speed of action”. Therefore speed training should strictly control the training mode, frequency, interval time, and the stability of speed and the mechanism of energy metabolism system should be considered firstly. The usually methods are: repeated training, speed changing training, race and game training.
 2.4 Endurance quality
 The endurance quality of hockey athletes consists of general endurance and special endurance quality. The general endurance training mainly needs aerobic methods, while the specific endurance training includes aerobic and anaerobic mixed training, anaerobic phosphate training and anaerobic glycolysis training. Endurance training is carried out at all stages of the season and both ice training and land training are needed. Methods of developing general endurance include uniform running, intermittent running, fartleke running, swimming and ball games.
 3 Assessment and diagnostic methods of ice hockey player
 The physical fitness of athletes is mainly monitored by testing method, which mainly tests general physical fitness and special physical fitness, and such tests are carried out at different stages. There are also researchers on the physical characteristics of athletes in aspects of the body shape, function and quality .
 Conclusions Research conclusion:The purpose of ice hockey physical training is to improve sports performance, enhance energy supply ability of metabolic system, and reduce injury. Such training should accord with its special characteristics and adopt the periodic training structure arrangement. And also should focus on the strength, speed, endurance, reasonable proportion of training arrangement on ice and land. The current physical fitness evaluation which includes general and special physical fitness still needs further study.