The Impact of Zakat, Agricultural Output, and Poverty on Indonesia’s Food Security

<p>This research is motivated by the mismatch between potential and real conditions in Indonesia, resulting in food security problems. As an archipelagic, maritime, tropical, and agricultural country, Indonesia has abundant natural resource potential. Indonesia is one of the largest rice-producing countries in the world. However, Indonesia's food security condition is still low. It is proven by Indonesia's food security index, which is still below the global and Asia-Pacific averages. This research aims to analyze the influence of Rice Production, Poverty, and Prevalence of undernourishment variables on food security in Indonesia. This type of research is descriptive quantitative, using secondary data in the form of panel data for 2018-2022. The analytical method used in this research is panel data regression analysis. The results of this research show that the variables of rice production, poverty, and prevalence of undernourishment (PoU) together significantly affect food security in Indonesia. Partially, the rice production variable has a positive and insignificant effect on food security in Indonesia. The poverty variable negatively and significantly affects food security in Indonesia. The prevalence of the undernourishment variable has a positive and significant effect on food security in Indonesia.</p>

Aggregate estimates of food expenditure are consistent with such a possibility, implying income/expenditure elasticities close to one. However, the high degree of aggregation at which such estimates are made means that the considerable increase in price per nutrient as income increases is ignored, and the nutrient elasticities are therefore overstated. Estimates for a rural south Indian sample indicate that this bias is considerable and that the true nutrient elasticities with respect to income may be close to zero.

Fulfilling food and nutrition for all is a priority policy for national development. This policy aligns with Sustainable Development Goal 2, No Hunger. Achieving this target is not easy because Indonesia has a large population with positive growth. On the other hand, climate change and the degradation of land and water resources are continuing. The Covid-19 pandemic and geopolitical tensions currently exacerbate these challenges. This study aims to analyze the performance of Indonesia's food security and formulate policy recommendations. The primary sources of data and information come from the publication of the Global Food Security Index (GFSI) 2021 and the Food Security Vulnerability Atlas (FSVA) 2021. The data are analyzed descriptively and qualitatively. Based on GFSI, in 2021, from 113 countries studied, Indonesia's food security was ranked 69th. At the national level, based on the FSVA, Indonesia has achieved food security nationally. However, 74 out of 514 districts/cities were still vulnerable to food insecurity. Efforts to accelerate the achievement of food and nutrition security need to be focused on dimensions that are considered to have weak performance and in areas that are vulnerable to food insecurity, namely food 1) consumption and safety and 2) natural resources and resilience. In line with that, it is necessary to accelerate the development of basic service infrastructure (health, education, and roads), especially in Eastern Indonesia, and empower the community to increase their income. Food policies must be integrated and synergized with national economic and health policies.

IntroductionWomen play an important role in maintaining household food security; unfortunately, their food security is frequently neglected. This type of phenomenon has become common in developing nations such as Bangladesh, particularly in its rural areas. The objective of this study is to investigate the variables that lead to the empowerment of rural women and its impact on their food security. In acknowledging women's significant contribution to achieving Sustainable Development Goal 2 (SDG-2)- Zero Hunger, this study investigates how access to resources, social support, and policy perceptions impact women's empowerment and food security.MethodsA total of 480 rural women from the southern part of Bangladesh were questioned, and their responses were analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling.ResultsWe found that access to resources, social support, and policy perceptions explain 74% of women's empowerment variance and women's empowerment explains 70% variance of women's food security. Access to resources and social support has significant positive impacts on women's empowerment. However, policy perceptions have a positive but not significant impact on women's empowerment. We also observed that women's empowerment significantly improved their food security.Practical implicationsTo empower women and improve their food security, the accessibility of resources and support from social networks must be improved. The study emphasizes the importance of strengthening the government's policies, which aim to improve the livelihood conditions of vulnerable people through regular monitoring to overcome underlying obstacles. Our study offers empirical data that policymakers can use to address complex food affordability and security challenges during global crises, enabling the achievement of SDG-2 in rural areas of Bangladesh and similar societies.

This study was conducted with the aim of analysing the mapping of food security between provinces in Indonesia using the Global Food Security Index (GFSI) approach where the aspects or dimensions used include availability, affordability and utilization. The research method is carried out with a quantitative approach through indexing calculations by means of distance to scale, namely for each measurement indicator an index calculation will be carried out by comparing one province with another province as a benchmarking (reference). The results of the study show that during the 2020-2023 period, the food security index for all provinces is at a fairly good level, which has an average score of 70%. Bali Province consistently ranks first for Indonesia's food security index by province. West Papua and Papua provinces consistently ranked the lowest for Indonesia's provincial food security index. The source of the low level of food security in West Papua and Papua is the low achievement of the pillars of affordability and utilisation. Keywords : food security, availability, affordability, utilization, distance to scale.

Indonesia is the largest archipelago in the world with total land area is around 190 million hectares (ha), of which about 28.94 percent or some 55 million ha are agricultural land. As the world’s fourth most populous country, Indonesia’s total population is estimated to increase from about 245 million in 2013 to 288 million in 2050. This study aims to analyze the leading sectors of each province in Indonesia by Location Quotient (LQ) method and distribution of food security level in every province in Indonesia based on rice production balance. This research uses Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Indonesia and Gross Domestic Regional Product of each of the provinces in all sectors during 2010-2014 obtained through the Indonesian Central Bureau of Statistics. The determination of the leading sectors of each province is based on the Location Quotient (LQ) which is the comparative method of the role of an economic sector in a province to the magnitude of the economic sector's role nationally. The food security index determined by the food security calculation that done by the ministry of Agriculture Indonesia especially the Food Security Agency of Indonesia based on the assumption of the resident who can fulfill more than 90 percent of Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is food secure category. Leading sectors in Indonesia is varies between one province to other province. Leading sectors obtained from Location Quotient (LQ) formula shows that although it is said to be an agrarian country, the LQ results indicate that not all provinces in Indonesia have the leading sector in agriculture. Leading sector in agricultural is only found in 20 provinces out of 33 provinces in Indonesia (exclude North Kalimantan). Most provinces with agricultural based have experienced economic structuring towards secondary and tertiary sectors. Provinces with the highest LQ scores in agriculture, forestry and fisheries are found only in North Sumatra, Lampung, West Kalimantan, Central Sulawesi and West Sulawesi. Provinces with LQ> 1 score for the agricultural sector indicate that the province has a high level of agricultural production so that it becomes a comparative advantage for regional development. Agriculture, forestry and fishery sector still dominates in some parts of Indonesia, especially Sumatra, Sulawesi, Maluku, Nusa Tenggara and part of Kalimantan Island but not as major economic contributor. While most provinces in Java, Bali and Papua do not have an economic advantage in the agricultural sector. Food Security Index of Indonesia mainly classified as the moderate level except for North Maluku, Papua, and West Papua in low level and Bali and West Nusa Tenggara (NTB) in high level. Factors influencing differences in food security are based on availibility and affordability factors. Availibilty factor reflects the resilience of an area in terms of food availability, while affordability factor reflects the ease of obtaining food.

Purpose. Given the urgent need to save the planet, countries are striving to achieve the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Agriculture is one of the sectors that contributes to the achievement of these goals on a global scale. As practices in this sector change, direct impacts on soil, air and water are evident, calling into question the sustainability of these practices. Furthermore, food security or food availability is also directly linked to the achievement of the SDGs. With limited research, this study examines the relationship between food security, agriculture, and SDGs. Methodology / approach. This research conducted a bibliometrics analysis from two databases, Web of Science (WoS), with 1450 papers and Scopus 463 documents for 10 years from 2014 to May 2024. Key parameters are identified and ranked, including highly productive authors, countries, disciplines, and institutions. The bibliometric software VOSviewer was used to perform co-word analysis and identify research clusters. Results. The research findings indicate that the United States, followed by India and China, have demonstrated the highest levels of publication activity within the field. The literature predominantly emphasises the SDGs, particularly Zero Hunger, Climate Action, and Life on Land, through the lens of agriculture and food security. The study underscores the leadership of the United States, India, and China in agricultural research, highlighting the critical necessity for concerted collaboration among researchers, policymakers, and practitioners to foster a transformative food system globally. The findings suggest that agriculture is crucial in attaining food security by guaranteeing sustainable food production, combating hunger, and encouraging activities that improve environmental conservation – all critical for long-term food availability –because of SDG 2: Zero Hunger. Originality / scientific novelty. This paper stands out for its originality as, by using bibliometric analysis, the study systematically maps the scientific literature and uncovers nuanced connections between food security, agriculture, and SDGs. Such an analysis has not yet been widely documented. This study contributed to a deeper understanding of the relationships and dynamics shaping global efforts to achieve food security and sustainable agriculture. Practical value / implications. This study offers a new perspective on how these critical areas of food security, agriculture, and SDGs interplay and evolve, providing crucial insights for policymakers, researchers, and practitioners alike. Moreover, the paper contributes to the academic discourse by synthesising trends, identifying gaps, and suggesting future research directions, paving the way for informed decision-making and impactful interventions in global food security and sustainable agriculture efforts.

• Purpose: This study aims to analyze and rank the factors influencing food security in Indonesia under climate change, focusing on the role of variables such as temperature change, drought and land fires, pollution, floods, irrigated rice fields, number of farmers, agricultural GRDP, and number of markets.• Design/methodology/approach: The research employs the Multi Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) method using the Preference Ranking Organization Method for Enrichment Evaluation (PROMETHEE), applied to data from 34 provinces in Indonesia.• Findings: The results indicate that 17 provinces have positive Phi values, reflecting relatively higher food security, while the other 17 provinces with negative Phi values show greater vulnerability to climate change.• Research limitations/implications: The study is limited by the selected variables and secondary data availability, excluding external factors such as government policies, geopolitical conditions, and global market dynamics. This opens opportunities for future research to add new variables or apply the model at the district or city level.• Practical implications: The provincial rankings provide a basis for policymakers, practitioners, and stakeholders in designing adaptive strategies to strengthen food security and prioritize interventions and resource allocation.• Originality/value: The originality of this study lies in the application of the PROMETHEE method in analyzing food security in Indonesia, highlighting its novelty and importance in supporting sustainable national food security. Keywords: Food Security, Adaptive Capacity, Climate Change, PROMETHEE.

Indonesia was known as an agrarian and maritime country, should not experience difficulties in fulfill food needs or having high food security. However, it is a formidable challenge for the Indonesia to meeting food needs. The low level of food security was caused more by Indonesia's geographical conditions in the form of islands that cause inequality of food production, distribution and absorption among provinces in Indonesia. To reduce the occurrence of food security inequality between provinces in Indonesia, clusters was formed based on food security indicators. Based clustering technique is chosen to overcome the problem of overlapping and the limited availability problem in food security data. The results of research produce 3 clusters based on the classification of food security levels. Based on Bayesian Information Criterion, the most fitted cluster model is a three-cluster model with diagonal distributions. The first cluster consisted of 19 provinces with a classification of middle food security levels, the second cluster consisted of 10 provinces with the classification of the level of high food security, and the third cluster consisted of 5 provinces with a classification of low food security levels. It is expected that the results of this clustering can provide input to the Indonesian government to focus more on 5 Provinces with low food security classification, which focuses on access to food.

This study investigated democratic leadership and sustainable development goal two of zero hunger in Nigeria.The study is limited in scope to examining the impact of democratic leadership on sustainable development goal two (zero hunger) in Uzo Uwani, Nkanu West and Agwu Local Government Areas of Enugu State from 1999 to 2023. The specific objectives of the study included to; examine the impact of democratic leadership on food security in Uzo Uwani, Nkanu West and Agwu Local Government Areas of Enugu State, ascertain the impact of democratic leadership on food availability and determine the factors militating against sustainable development goal two in Uzo Uwani, Nkanu West and Agwu Local Government Areas of Enugu State. Two thousand seven hundred and thirty (2730) residents from the three selected local government areas in Enugu State served as the population of the study. A stratified proportion sampling was employed to obtain a suitable unit representative of the population. A questionnaire developed by the researcher served as the instrument for data collection. Data elicited from the respondents was analyzed using simple percentages, while the chi-square was used for testing of hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance, the findings of the study revealed that; democratic leadership has significant effect on food security and production in Uzo Uwani, Nkanu West and Agwu Local Government Areas of Enugu State, the factors militating against sustainable development goal two (zero hunger) in Uzo Uwani, Nkanu West and Agwu Local Government Areas of Enugu State include; corruption, bad governance, inadequate capital for food production, and none adaptation of mechanized farming. Based on the findings; the following recommendations were made; government should endeavor to make adequate fund available for the acquisition of fertilizers, improved farm implements, improved technology by farmers, farmers should from time to time be educated on the use of improved seedlings and adoption of mechanized farming, government should make loans easily accessible for production of food across the country. Keywords: Democratic leadership, Food Security, Food Production and Food Availability

The review explores the intricate relationship between agricultural practices, climate change, and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly focusing on SDG 2: Zero Hunger. It highlights the profound impact of climatic variations on crop yields, increased frequency of extreme weather events, and the proliferation of pests and diseases, all contributing to reduced agricultural productivity. This poses significant challenges to achieving the SDGs of eradicating hunger and poverty. Smallholder farmers have adopted various adaptive measures, such as adjusting farming operations, on-farm diversification, and improved soil-water management. However, industrial agriculture, while successful in increasing calorie production, has led to biodiversity loss, soil degradation, and greenhouse gas emissions, thus failing to eliminate hunger and leading to widespread micronutrient deficiencies. Approximately 815 million people are currently undernourished, with two billion suffering from micronutrient deficiencies. The paper emphasizes the necessity for sustainable agricultural practices that enhance productivity while protecting ecosystems. Key strategies include improving irrigation, adopting integrated weed management, using precision agriculture, and reducing post-harvest losses. The review underscores the importance of policy interventions and innovative technologies in addressing the global food security challenge. Effective food security strategies must incorporate sustainable production practices, leverage genetic diversity, and ensure economic and physical access to nutritious food. Addressing food security within the framework of SDGs requires a holistic approach that integrates environmental sustainability, economic development, and social inclusion. Collaborative efforts between governments, scientists, and local communities are vital to achieving a sustainable and food-secure future.

This discussion explores the opportunities and challenges in enhancing food production and security in the context of climatic variability in Sub Saharan Africa. The promotion of sustainable use of plant and animal products with emphasis on satisfying basic human needs, improving people’s standard of living, enhancing food security and reducing poverty have taken a center stage in Sub Saharan Africa. However, the efforts in this direction are being impacted negatively by climate change, through animal and crop production which have not been spared due to the natural disasters and environmental challenges which have affected all regions of Sub Saharan Africa indiscriminately. Climate is a particularly important driver of food production systems performance at the agriculture end of the food chain. It can affect the quantities and types of food produced as well as production-related income especially for the poor resource farmers. In order to be able to adequately address food production and security in the context of climate, there is need for the region to carry out thorough climatic vulnerability and adaptation assessments. Supporting research and training of experts to carry out vulnerability and adaptation assessments on crop and livestock production is crucial in order for respective countries to develop climate change adaptation measures to meet the obligation on food production and security. Sub Saharan Africa’s agro-ecological regions are variable and need to develop specific adaptive measures to reduce vulnerability to climate change. Due to the changing climatic conditions which the continent has already witnessed many severe climatic induced vulnerability such as decline in rainfall amounts and intensity, reduced length of rain season and increasing warm and occasionally very hot conditions has affected food production and security. Crop and livestock production systems will need to adapt to higher ambient temperatures, lower nutritional value of feed resources and new diseases and parasites occurrence. It can be seen that the present crop and livestock production systems based on pastoral or rangeland grazing husbandry systems, ecological destruction through climatic variability and overgrazing due to high stocking rates in areas where feed and water has been compromised due to high temperatures caused by climate change does not augur well for future livestock productivity. The understanding of climate change variables and their impacts is the first step in climate change research and prerequisite for defining appropriate adaptive responses by local crop and livestock farmers. Sustainable crop and livestock production supporting rural development should be compatible with the goals of curbing the effects of climate change. Production priorities should be directed towards promoting local crop and livestock genetic resources by providing comprehensive research support services on the impact of climate change. Both crops and livestock play important roles in farming systems, as they offer opportunities for risk coping, farm diversification and intensification, and provide significant livelihood benefits and food security. The discussion therefore, concludes that the effectiveness of biophysical responses of crop and livestock production systems to specific environmental challenges that are anticipated as a result of climate change, and then the range of adaptive measures that might be taken by local producers to ameliorate their effects will be the prerequisite for defining appropriate societal responses and meet food security targets.

Climate change affects food security because it causes a shift in the rainy or dry season, which greatly affects the pattern and timing of planting food crops. A decrease in agricultural production will trigger an increase in food prices, which in turn will lead to a decrease in household food purchasing power. Bulog, in this case as the party appointed by the government to carry out activities to maintain the Basic Purchase Price for grain, stabilize prices, especially basic prices, distribute rice for social assistance (Bansos) and manage food stocks, has several strategies to overcome this problem. This study aims to identify the impact of climate change on Indonesia's food security strategy undertaken by Bulog in 2023. The research methodology is based on secondary data that includes a literature review of, articles, e-books, open access e-journals, and previous research. The results showed the influence of climate change on the strategy of Bulog in maintaining food security despite declining production by 1) encouraging subsidiaries by Badan Usaha Milik Negara (BUMN) to increase domestic rice production, 2) building 10 rice milling centers, 7 rice processing centers to its logistics, 3) Distribution of rice assistance of 10 kg per month for low-income groups Program, 4) Stabilization of Food Price Supply (Stabilisasi Pasokan Harga Pangan), which supplies more than 1 million tons of rice at a lower price than the market price. The implication of this research is the importance of strategies to increase domestic food production, strengthen food distribution infrastructure, and pay attention to low-income groups in food assistance programs to overcome the impact of climate change on Indonesia's future food security.

The <scp>United Nations</scp> Sustainable Development Goals: Aspirational or obtainable?

A comprehensive set of regionally relevant indicators and metrics is crucial for tracking progress in transforming food systems to meet the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Household food security, foundational to sustainable, equitable, and resilient food systems, aligns with SDG 2 (Zero Hunger). Policymakers require accurate data to guide decisions, yet a major challenge is developing scientifically sound, participatory, and reproducible approaches for sub-national food system indicators and metrics. This study addresses this need by using the Delphi research method to create a multi-indicator system of both stand-alone and complementary food security metrics specific to Hawaiʻi. Engaging 24 food security experts in Hawaiʻi, with a 58% response rate in the second round, consensus was achieved on 55 of 71 metrics (78%). The U.S. Household Food Security Survey Module (HFSSM) received the highest rating among stand-alone metrics (3.5, SD = 0.8). Complementary metrics were organized within a framework encompassing the four dimensions of food security: availability, access, utilization, and stability. Access metrics received top ratings, including the ‘rate of households below the ALICE threshold’ (4.4, SD = 0.7). ALICE stands for Asset Limited, Income Constrained, and Employed, and refers to households that earn enough to be ineligible for many public assistance programs but not enough to afford basic necessities. Results highlight the need to clarify terminology, address food (in)security misconceptions, develop new metrics for data gaps, and prioritize initiatives like the Supplementary Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) that address Hawaiʻi’s high living costs and enhance food access. The participatory, multidimensional metrics model presented here is adaptable to other regions, extending its impact beyond Hawaiʻi.