The Impact of Smoke Curtains on the Operation of ESFR Sprinklers in Terms of NFPA 204 and NFPA 13 Standards

This study delineates preventive fire protection measures and sets the requirements for passive and active fire protection for buildings and their surrounding areas. The aim is to enhance fire safety, reduce vulnerability and limit the spread of fires, while concurrently protecting the natural environment and public health. Critical active fire protection measures, including water supply systems, water intake points, and sprinkler systems, are identified as essential for fire prevention, ensuring immediate response and mitigating fire impacts. The study concludes that the installation and technical specifications of these measures are contingent upon local vegetation, meteorological conditions, topography, etc., while they should be incorporated into comprehensive forest management plans to prevent fire protection in residential areas.

Projects with accelerated engineering, procurement, and construction (EPC) schedules are becoming common in the oil and gas industry with Oil Majors keen on quick and guaranteed returns on investment. EPC contractors involved in the bidding process face the task of submitting ‘qualification free’ techno-commercial proposals within a short time frame which provides challenges to the tenderer for a package having a level of design not mature enough for the estimation purpose. The objective of this paper is to demonstrate a practical approach to the cost estimation of fire protection systems during bidding stage using Simplified Risk Assessment (SRA) methodologies. The methodology adopted was to conduct a risk assessment for a typical bid to arrive at the sound cost estimate for the fire protection systems. Typically fire protection requirements come in form of recommendations from safety/risk studies, hence cost attached to fire protection requirements were estimated based on the results from SRA for a typical bid. The Fire Risk Assessment (FRA) was performed using DNV-GL PHAST software to carry out consequence analysis to identify the extent of fire impacts. Subsequently, frequency analysis was conducted using parts count methodology to cumulate the frequency of fire scenarios. The most prominent leak scenarios for the study were considered as a part of the simplified approach in lieu of considering exhaustive scenario combinations based on different leak sizes, weather parameters, leak directions, etc., which traditionally forms part of detailed QRA. The selection of prominent leak scenarios was based on the good practice followed in the industry supported by the requirements specified within Operator Standards as well. The Fire Risk Assessment (FRA) results for different time intervals formed the basis for fire protection requirements. The study has helped to identify fire protection requirements for specific system/equipment/structure and further has helped in the submission of ‘qualification free’ techno-commercial proposals. The advantages of adopting this methodology based on SRA approach are deemed to be well-suited for bidding phase, where the time and cost of carrying out detailed risk analysis is not feasible. Application of such methodology would also provide benefits to the operators in receiving quick and reliable fire protection cost estimate.

In this study, a Large Eddy Simulation (LES) based fire field model was applied to numerically investigate the effectiveness of smoke control using smoke vents and curtains within a large-scale atrium fire. Two compartment configurations were considered: the first case with no smoke curtains installed, while the second case included a smoke curtain at the centre of the compartment to trap smoke. Based on the thermocouple results, it was found that the model predicted the gas temperature near the fire particularly well. The time development and heat transfer of the gas temperature predictions were in good agreement with the experimental measurements. Nevertheless, the gas temperature was slightly under-predicted when the thermocouple was further away from the flaming region. Overall, it was discovered that the combination of a smoke curtain and ceiling vents was a highly effective natural smoke exhaust system. However, under the same vent configuration, if the smoke curtain height is not adequate to completely block the spread of smoke, it significantly reduces the pressure differential between the compartment and the exterior, causing reduced flow rates in the outlet vents.

The configuration of smoke vents plays a critical role in the smoke extraction design of Urban Traffic Link Tunnels (UTLT). This study employs the Fluent numerical simulation method to investigate the influence of the smoke vent area at the tunnel ceiling on parameters such as temperature fluctuations, smoke layer height, and smoke mass flow rate. Through this analysis, the patterns of smoke exhaust effectiveness were identified, leading to the determination of the optimal smoke vent parameters. The findings reveal that larger smoke vent areas significantly reduce both the temperature and the concentration of CO within the tunnel. However, as the smoke vent area increases, the total mass flow rate of discharged smoke tends to decrease. Additionally, the amount of air drawn by the smoke vent decreases first and then increases, while the actual smoke extraction volume and the efficiency of the smoke vent decline. These results provide valuable insights for optimizing smoke vent design in UTLTs.

Smoke deposition and extraction in compartment fires with different ignition sources

Direct surface wetting sprinkler system to reduce the use of evaporative cooling pads in meat chicken production: indoor thermal environment, water usage, litter moisture content, live market weights, and mortalities

Building design in civil engineering is characterized by the cooperation of experts in multiple disciplines. The close cooperation of engineers is the basis of a high product quality, short development periods and a minimum of investment costs. In contrast to most other design fields the development process in building design is characterized by the design of unique copies. For each building the engineers have to create a new fire protection model. As a result of huge fire disasters fire protection engineering is one of the central aspects for administrative authorities in the process of licensing the building design. Optimal conditions for the rescue of persons in case of fire only can be established, if the fire protection engineering conditions are created early in the planning process. The consistent realization of the fire protection model in all details has high demands on the communication and collaboration of the involved engineers and the corresponding building models. To preserve the related design models consistent to each other and compatible with the rules of fire protection engineering is a complex task. This leads to high demands on the semantic structure of communication, collaboration and building models. In addition, regulations and guidelines vary according to the building location, so the relevant rules must be integrated dynamically into the planning process. This paper covers the integration of engineers and design models into a cooperation network on the basis of mobile agents. Distributed models of architectural design, structural planning and fire protection engineering are supported. These can be accessed by mobile agents for information retrieval and for processing tasks. Agents which are enabled to check-up the distributed design models with the knowledge base of the fire protection regulations are provided to all planners. Thereby, the planners are supported to check-up their planning for accordance with the fire protection requirements. The fire-engineering-agent analyzes the design and detects inconsistencies by processing fire protection requirements and design model facts in a rule-based expert system. The possibility to check the planning information at an early state in the sense of compatibility to the fire protection regulations enables a comprehensive diagnosis of the design and leads to a reduction of planning errors.

Aim: The purpose of this study is to identify cyber threats associated with systems integrating fire protection devices (SIUP). The analysis includes conducting a comprehensive assessment of potential attack sites (vulnerabilities) and recommendations for building designers and managers to minimise adverse actions. Project and methods: A detailed review of the literature and cybersecurity standards applicable to fire protection systems, such as NFPA 72, was conducted, from which key points that are vulnerable elements and represent attack surfaces were identified. The Cybersecurity for Fire Protection Systems report from a workshop held by the Research Foundation in 2021 was analysed. Results: Analysis of the collected research material showed that the key points of vulnerability are human factors, software, hardware, wired and wireless connections and system security. In addition, internal threats, i.e. lack of training, malicious action by employees, invasion by unknown software and too much access by security personnel to system components, are also important issues. It has been found that cybercriminals can use various techniques: denial-of- service (DoS) attacks, man-in-the-middle attacks, remote code execution and social engineering, to disrupt systems. To prevent this and minimise the risk of attacks, it is recommended that security configuration guides should be issued, that specialists should be employed and that strategies should be created to increase the resilience of systems integrating fire appliances to cyber attacks. Currently, Polish regulations are mainly based on the technical aspects of SIUP operation, i.e. the installation and operation of alarm systems. There is a lack of relevant legal regulations that directly address the issue of the network and cyber security of these systems. Conclusions: It is necessary to urgently develop and implement comprehensive legal regulations that would take into account the specificity of the cyber security of fire protection systems in Poland. Future research should also focus on the human factor aspects of SIUP systems security. Keywords: safety, cyber security, fire protection, system integrating fire protection devices, SIUP, fire protection device

A mathematical model has been developed to investigate the effect of a sprinkler spray on adjacent horizontal smoke venting and in particular the water droplet drag component. The pressure difference across a roof vent and the volumetric flow of smoke vented are determined by considering the interaction between the drag force of the sprinkler spray and the buoyancy of the smoke layer in the spray region. Smoke venting may become progressively more inefficient as the sprinkler operating pressure increases due to the cooling and drag effect of the sprinkler spray. Full scale experiments were carried out to validate the model. Results show that the mathematical model can predict the observed trend of a decrease in vented volumetric flow with an increase in sprinkler operating pressure, which eventually leads to ineffective smoke venting. Experiments with different smoke venting areas show that vent area has little influence on smoke flow once sprinkler pressure causes a loss in smoke flow efficiency or vent function.

This study investigates the social and demographic correlates of nonfatal structural fire injury rates for the civilian population for Philadelphia census tracts during 1993-2001. The author analyzed 1,563 fire injuries by census tract using the 1990 census (STF 3) and unpublished data from the Office of the Fire Marshal of the Philadelphia Fire Department. Injury rates were calculated per 1,000 residents of a given census tract. Multiple regression was used to determine significant variables in predicting fire injuries in a given census tract over a nine-year period and interaction effects between two of these variables-age of housing and income. Multiple regression analysis indicates that older housing (prior to 1940), low income, the prevalence of vacant houses, and the ability to speak English have significant independent effects on fire injury rates in Philadelphia. In addition, the results show a significant interaction between older housing and low income. Given the finding of very high rates of fire injuries in census tracts that are both low income and have older housing, fire prevention units can take preventative measures. Fire protection devices, especially smoke alarms, should be distributed in the neighborhoods most at risk. Multiple occupancy dwellings should have sprinkler systems and fire extinguishers. Laws concerning the maintenance of older rental housing need to be strictly enforced. Vacant houses should be effectively boarded up or renovated for residential use. Fire prevention material should be distributed in a number of languages to meet local needs.

Fire protection and safety measures in hospitals are of utmost importance to ensure the safety of patients, staff, and visitors. In case of a fire, it is crucial to evacuate people safely and quickly. However, evacuation in hospitals is a complex process due to the presence of patients with varying degrees of mobility, staff, and visitors, and the hospital's unique layout. This project aims to assess and improve fire protection and safety measures in hospitals, focusing on pedestrian flow evacuation. The project team conducted a comprehensive literature review of various research papers to gain a better understanding of fire basics, the leading causes of death in case of fire, and the challenges that arise during evacuation. The literature review revealed that fires in hospitals are rare, but when they occur, the consequences can be catastrophic. The leading cause of death in case of fire is smoke inhalation, and the most significant challenge during evacuation is the movement of patients with mobility issues. The literature review also highlighted the importance of smoke detection systems, sprinkler systems, and fire-resistant materials in hospitals. These systems and materials can significantly reduce the risk of fire and minimize the damage caused by a fire. Additionally, the literature review revealed that the use of ire drills is critical to prepare staff and patients for an emergency. To gain a better understanding of the challenges that arise during evacuation, the project team conducted interviews with hospital staff and patients. The interviews revealed that the most significant challenge during evacuation is the movement of patients with mobility issues. These patients require specialized equipment and assistance to move, which can slow down the evacuation process. The interviews also revealed that staff training is critical to ensure an efficient evacuation process. Staff members need to be trained on the proper evacuation procedures, the location of emergency exits, and how to use specialized equipment during evacuation. The project team created a simulation of a hospital floor with pedestrians to investigate the dynamics of evacuation. The simulation revealed that the movement of patients with mobility issues significantly slowed down the evacuation process. The simulation also highlighted the importance of clear signage and staff guidance during evacuation. Based on the literature review, interviews, and simulation, the project team identified several ways to improve fire protection and safety measures in hospitals. These include conducting regular fire drills to prepare staff and patients for an emergency, installing smoke detection systems, sprinkler systems, and fire-resistant materials in hospitals, and providing staff training on proper evacuation procedures and the use of specialized equipment during evacuation. By implementing these measures, hospitals can improve their fire protection and safety measures and ensure the safety of patients, staff, and visitors during an emergency. The project takes hospital occupancy as the research object, sets the fire scenario, manipulates Pathfinder simulation software to establish the evacuation model, studies the evacuation rules in fire, ascertains the key problems in evacuation, and gets the maximum number of people evacuated during the safe evacuation time

Fire protection systems (FPSs) and features are installed in U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Hazard Category 1, 2, or 3 nuclear facilities to protect property (maximum possible fire loss thresholds), life, and nuclear safety (i.e., structures, systems, and components). These FPSs and features are designed and maintained in accordance with the prescriptive guidance provided in applicable building codes and National Fire Protection Association codes and standards. Management, operations, and maintenance activities of FPSs involve significant effort. A DOE facility’s documented safety analysis or other safety basis document could also rely on FPSs to provide either a safety significant or safety class function to mitigate fire hazards and minimize radiological consequences. In some cases, the designation of safety significant or safety class may be determined to provide a layer of defense-in-depth to minimize nuclear safety risks independent of the fire risk. DOE standards allow the use of performance-based design alternatives developed by the fire industry but do not consider the defense-in-depth layers of protection provided in DOE facilities to prevent or mitigate the risks associated with unintended release of radioactive materials into the environment. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory developed a decision-making methodology tailored for DOE non-reactor nuclear facilities to manage FPSs and features by integrating nuclear safety risk insights into a performance-based analysis. This risk-informed, performance-based (RIPB) methodology can be used to provide the technical basis for classifying an FPS as safety class and safety significant, tailoring administrative controls (e.g., technical safety requirements), and ranking the importance of FPSs to prioritize maintenance, upgrades, and replacement activities. The RIPB methodology is a graded approach to inform DOE facility owners and Fire Protection Program managers of the most risk-significant FPSs and equipment, and those systems would be cost-beneficial to relax rigor if there is a need to re-design the FPS coverage or deviate from DOE and National Fire Protection Association standards for those systems that would be less significant. This paper describes the framework used to develop the RIPB methodology and the outcome of implementing this methodology in a use-case nuclear facility. This paper also discusses the impact to DOE policies and standards and the safety margins and defense-in-depth measures credited in nuclear safety assessments in a facility’s documented safety analysis and the benefits of implementing an RIPB methodology in lieu of a prescriptive method to comply with fire protection requirements.

A lack of information on the effectiveness of fire safety systems, including sprinklers, has been noted as being a limiting factor in the development of performance-based fire safety design. Of the fire safety systems available, sprinkler operation has been studied most extensively. This paper reviews the information currently available on sprinkler effectiveness in fires. Two approaches are generally taken for estimating sprinkler effectiveness: component-based approaches using a fault tree or similar method and system-based approaches using fire incident data where sprinklers were present. In this paper, sprinkler system component data and effectiveness estimates from system-based studies have been compiled and tabulated, with a comparison of the merits of the two approaches. Recommendations for using the data for design purposes are made, including considerations for uncertainty and using a hybrid system/component approach for specific sprinkler system comparisons. These recommendations provide input on the reliability of systems in the development of performance-based fire safety design methods.

In early 1991, a new sprinkler system was planned for the existing National Archives/National Library of Canada building in Ottawa. A major challenge in the design and installation of the sprinkler systems was to protect mobile compact shelving units located in the three levels below grade. Storage of documents in these shelving units is typically within 178 mm of the concrete slab ceiling. The minimum clearance permitted by the sprinkler system installation standard is 457 mm from the sprinkler deflector to the top of the storage. To conform with the sprinkler design standard, the top level or levels of storage would have had to be removed and additional storage space acquired. Because of the annual cost of this additional storage, an investigation was begun to determine feasible alternatives that would permit a reduction in clearances between sprinklers and storage, while maintaining an acceptable level of fire safety. This paper describes the series of five full-scale fire tests that were conducted to assess various fire protection options. Based on these tests, design criteria were developed for a sprinkler system using quick response horizontal sidewall sprinklers to protect the mobile shelving units. An overview of this technically based fire protection system for use in protecting shelving units with reduced clearance is also presented.

In the operational conduct of a company, especially those relating to the storage of materials and goods in warehouses, the occupational health and safety OHS) aspects are critical factors that cannot be neglected. Fire was one of the consequences of a non-standard OHS application. The purpose of this research was to provide a proposal for the design of fire protection systems in the Archives and Documents Company, which are light fire extinguishers, sprinkler systems, hydrants, and reservoirs. This research method is observational-descriptive. In conceptual planning, layout, and coordination with the company, the researchers directly perform observations on the PT Archives and Documents to analyze and identify the deficiencies of fire protection equipment owned by the associated companies. ADC requires a total of 9 light fire extinguishers, 192 sprinkler points, 6 hydrants, and a reservoir size of 343,000 liters as a fire protection system according to the National Fire Protection Association standards (NFPA). All buildings that are occupied by humans and have a risk of fire must be equipped with fire protection. for future research in the field of fire safety research to design an emergency response plan for a building by simulating it with advanced technology. By implementing the proposed fire protection, the Company can prevent fire and spread of fire more widely