The impact of rapid urbanization on residential energy consumption in China.

This paper investigated the impact of urbanization on residential energy consumption (REC) in China by taking cognizance of the levels of income, urbanization and urban density. Threshold analyses were employed to investigate the nonlinear relationships based on the STIRPAT (Stochastic Impacts by Regression on Population, Affluence, and Technology) framework using a balanced panel dataset of 29 provinces of China over the period of 1998-2014. The common correlated effects mean group estimator (CCEMG) was used to address time-series cross-section (TSCS) issues. The results confirmed the existence of the nonlinear relationship between urbanization and REC in China. The impact of urbanization on REC varied at different economic development levels and urbanization levels. Specifically, urbanization decreased REC at the stage that per capita disposable income of urban residents (PDI) less than 2615 USD, while it increased REC at the stage that PDI higher than 2615 USD. Similarly, urbanization decreased REC at the stage that urbanization rate lower than 55.31% and increased REC after urbanization rate exceeded 55.31%. This study did not find evidence to support the urban environmental transition theory, indicating there was still no region in China had stepped into the win-win stage of urbanization and energy consumption. Furthermore, the nonlinear impact of urban density on REC was estimated and the results indicated that urban density exerted a positive effect on REC when urban density was lower than 808 inhabitants per square kilometer, while it was no longer relevant to REC after that threshold point. Based on these results, the corresponding countermeasures and suggestions to achieve low-carbon urbanization were put forward.

Analysis of rural residential commercial energy consumption in China

Exploring the sensitivity of residential energy consumption in China: Implications from a micro-demographic analysis

Since China's economic reforms and opening-up policy in 1980, China has experienced significant urbanization. This rapid urbanization has stimulated the growth of energy consumption. To investigate the impacts of urbanization on Chinese households' energy consumption, this paper analyzed the changes in households' direct energy consumption (DEC) and calculated households' indirect energy consumption (IEC) based on an energy input-output model. By applying an input-output structure decomposition analysis model, this paper quantitatively measured the impacts of urbanization on the direct and indirect energy consumption of households in China. We found that the amount of China's urban households' DEC gradually increased from 48.7 million tons of oil equivalent to 185.2 million tons of oil equivalent. In 2012, the proportion of coal products in urban households' DEC decreased from 91.4% in 1980 to 24.3%, while the proportion of petroleum products, natural gas, and electricity in urban households' DEC increased. During 1980 to 2012, China's rural households' DEC increased from 36.7 million tons of oil equivalent to 121.5 million tons of oil equivalent. However, the proportion of coal products was still greater than 50% in 2012. Chinese households' IEC increased from 302.8 million tons of oil equivalent in 1987 to 769.9 million tons of oil equivalent in 2010. In addition, China's urban households' IEC had a faster growth rate than China's rural households' IEC. Urban households' IEC increased from 139.0 million tons in 1987 to 599.8 million tons in 2010, while rural households' IEC fluctuated during the same period, with 163.8 million tons in 1987, 132.2 million tons in 2000, and 170.1 million tons in 2010. Among the impact factors of households' DEC, which include the population, urbanization rate, urban/rural households' DEC per capita and urban/rural households' DEC structure, China's total population has a positive effect on households' DEC growth. The urbanization rate is the other important factor constantly stimulating China's households' DEC growth. For households' IEC, the urbanization rate and per capita consumption had positive effects on the increase in households' IEC. Except for the period from 2002 to 2005, direct energy intensity had a negative effect on the increase in households' IEC in other periods. The Leontief effect on households' IEC was positive from 2000 to 2005 and negative in other subperiods. The results indicate that China needs to integrate energy efficiency, ecological conservation, and social fairness in its “new-type urbanization” planning. Green lifestyles within the household and low-carbon city construction should be encouraged.

Household energy consumption is one of the important indicators reflecting the economic development and living standard across countries. Using China’s classified household energy consumption and daily expenditure data from 2011 to 2019, this paper first calculated the overall direct and indirect household energy consumption in China in recent years by means of energy classification and consumer lifestyle analysis (CLA), and then analyzed the characteristics and changes of household energy consumption structure, and the different trends between urban and rural areas in China. We found that 1) Coal consumption occupied the first place in indirect energy consumption, followed by electricity. In terms of the overall trends, whether direct or indirect energy consumption, the proportion of coal was declining while those of electricity and natural gas were increasing year by year. 2) Indirect energy consumption accounted for the majority of the total, and the largest share of that was about housing consumption both in urban and rural areas. The changes in the indirect energy consumption structure of the urban and the rural were quite different. Compared with the indirect energy consumption of the rural, that of the urban showed both a faster growth rate and a larger share in the total indirect consumption, which reflected the inequality trend at present in energy consumption intensity and structure between urban and rural areas in China.

The residential sector has become the second largest energy consumer in China. Urban residential energy consumption (URE) in China is growing rapidly in the process of urbanization. This paper aims to reveal the spatiotemporal dynamic evolution and influencing mechanism of URE in China. The spatiotemporal heterogeneity of URE during 2007–2018 is explored through Kernel density estimation and inequality measures (i.e., Gini coefficient, Theil index, and mean logarithmic deviation). Then, with several advantages over traditional index decomposition analysis approaches, the Generalized Divisia Index Method (GDIM) decomposition is employed to investigate the impacts of eight driving factors on URE. Furthermore, the national and provincial decoupling relationships between URE and residential income increase are studied. It is found that different provinces’ URE present a significant agglomeration effect; the interprovincial inequality in URE increases and then decreases during the study period. The GDIM decomposition results indicate the income effect is the main positive factor driving URE. Besides, urban population, residential area, per capita energy use, and per unit area energy consumption positively influence URE. By contrast, per capita income, energy intensity, and residential density have negative effects on URE. There is evidence that only three decoupling states, i.e., weak decoupling, strong decoupling, and expansive negative decoupling, appear in China during 2007–2018. Specifically, weak decoupling is the dominant state among different regions. Finally, some suggestions are given to speed up the construction of energy-saving cities and promote the decoupling process of residential energy consumption in China. This paper fills some research gaps in urban residential energy research and is important for China’s policymakers.

Spatial-temporal variation and coupling analysis of residential energy consumption and economic growth in China

Drivers of urban and rural residential energy consumption in China from the perspectives of climate and economic effects

Comparison of Direct and Indirect Energy Consumption in China and the United States

Contribution of price/expenditure factors of residential energy consumption in China from 1993 to 2011: A decomposition analysis

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0270226.].

The impact of urbanization on residential energy consumption in China: An aggregated and disaggregated analysis

This chapter describes and analyzes the residential energy consumption in China in terms of amount and cost of energy and carbon footprint using energy balance and energy flow charts, and compares the residential energy consumption in different regions of China. The analysis and comparison of residential energy consumption in China aims to identify its patterns and influential factors, help decision-makers and the public understand the basic characteristics and geological distribution of residential energy consumption in China and find out the potential, obstacles and influential factors for energy conservation in daily life. The energy sources for household consumption covered in this survey included coal, gasoline, diesel, kerosene, LPG, pipeline natural gas and coal gas, electricity and heat (steam, hot water and hot air for district heating), firewood, straw, solar energy and biogas, etc. Residential energy-consuming activities included cooking, use of household electrical appliances, space heating, water heating and air conditioning. The coefficients for converting consumption of various energy sources to coal equivalent are from the China Energy Statistical Yearbook. In addition, except for the energy balance, energy flow charts and carbon emission tables, the analysis in other sections is based on the calculation results of electrothermal equivalent.

Nowadays, energy consumption of rural household in China has been changing. Thus, it is necessary to explore the direct and indirect energy consumption of rural households, which may present an overview of rural households’ energy consumption. In this paper, the consumer lifestyle approach method is utilized to estimate the indirect energy consumption of rural household during 1998–2011. Over the study period, the direct energy consumption gradually increased, while the indirect energy consumption decreased. In 2008, the direct energy consumption exceeded the indirect one. In 2011, per capita indirect energy consumption of rural resident decreased 36 % compared to 1998. The reduction in per capita indirect energy consumption for high-income resident was the fastest. Per capita indirect energy consumption of eastern rural resident was higher than that of other regions. Per capita indirect energy consumption of Shanghai rural resident was the biggest in 1998. However, per capita indirect energy consumption of Beijing rural resident became the biggest in 2011. The center of gravity for per capita indirect energy consumption is an overall movement toward the northwest.

Residential energy consumption is an important component of terminal energy consumption in China. The terminal energy consumption in the residential sector in China was 455 million tons of coal equivalent in 2013, accounting for 11.3% of the total. At present, the residential energy consumption in China is at a lower level in the world (about half of the residential energy consumption in OECD countries), but with further urbanization and improvement of people’s life, the energy demand in the residential sector will grow gradually. In the 1990s, China issued the Energy Conversation Law of the People’s Republic of China (Energy Conservation Law), which required lower energy consumption and waste reduction during the process of energy exploitation and utilization.