The impact of place attachment on return migration intention: a moderated mediation study

The issue of the continuing decline of rural areas caused by urbanization has become a global concern. Encouraging college graduates to return to their hometowns to start businesses is an important initiative for countries to achieve sustainable rural development. Drawing from the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), this study introduces two additional variables: place attachment and entrepreneurial self-efficacy. Through a series of three model refinements, a comprehensive theoretical framework has been formulated to elucidate Chinese college graduates' hometown-based entrepreneurial intention and behavior. The samples for this study were 1151 college graduates selected from diverse universities across China. This study aims to explore the influence of college graduates' hometown-based entrepreneurial intention using Structural Equation Modelling. This analytical approach illuminates how variables such as college graduates' place attachment, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, subjective norm for hometown-based entrepreneurship, and attitude towards hometown-based entrepreneurship affected their hometown-based entrepreneurial intention. The research findings reveal the following insights: (1) The overall levels of college graduates' place attachment and hometown-based entrepreneurial intention were relatively low. (2) College graduates' place attachment, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, subjective norm for hometown-based entrepreneurship, and attitude towards hometown-based entrepreneurship, had a positive impact on their hometown-based entrepreneurial intention. (3) College graduates' place attachment and subjective norm for hometown-based entrepreneurship had a significant impact on their hometown-based entrepreneurial intention through the mediating variable of entrepreneurial self-efficacy. This study then makes policy recommendations from theoretical and managerial aspects.

Purpose This study aims to expand the theory of planned behavior (TPB) by incorporating place attachment as a mediating variable and word-of-mouth (WOM) as a moderating variable and utilizing a mediation–moderation analytical framework to explore tourists’ behavioral intention in marine leisure contexts. Design/methodology/approach This study used anonymous questionnaires and face-to-face data collection as the main survey methods and investigated water sports and marine leisure activities to explore visitors’ views when they participated in marine recreational activities. First, we used JASP to analyze the confirmatory factor analyses with all measures to determine whether the hypothesized construct model fit the data well. Second, structural equation modeling was utilized to explore the interactions of the latent variables in relation to the mediating effects. Findings This research identifies and confirms the important mediating role of place attachment and destination image in the TPB model. Additionally, considering the prevalence of internet technology, this study introduces word-of-mouth (WOM) as a moderating effect, confirming its important reinforcing function in place attachment, destination image and behavioral intention. Practical implications Practically, tourism managers should design experiential interventions – such as storytelling tours, marine heritage events or ecologically themed festivals – that cultivate emotional connection (place attachment) while reinforcing positive destination imagery. This alignment of emotional branding with tourists’ behavioral triggers informed by the TPB offers a strategic roadmap for increasing loyalty, revisit intention and social sharing behaviors, especially through WOM amplification. Originality/value The findings confirm and extend the TPB framework by demonstrating that emotional constructs, specifically place attachment, mediate the influence of TPB variables (attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control) on behavioral intention. The findings suggest that rational decision-making models can be enhanced by incorporating affective bonds to better predict behavior, aligning with recent theoretical advancements that emphasize integrated emotion–cognition models.

Migrants often form expectations about destinations before migration, regarding factors such as employment and local amenities; yet, due to imperfect information, many of these pre‐migration expectations cannot be fully fulfilled after arrival. Both the Neoclassical Economics (NE) and the New Economics of Labour Migration (NELM) theories posit that expectation fulfilment influences return migration, albeit in opposite directions. However, few studies have empirically tested this relationship. This study addresses this gap by examining how expectation fulfilment influences migrants' return intentions using survey data from approximately 7800 internal migrants across 15 Chinese prefectural cities. By disaggregating expectations into 12 distinct types, we demonstrate that the influence of expectation fulfilment on migrants' return intentions varies substantially. Our findings generally support NE: fulfilling expectations—particularly regarding wages, medical services, and amenities—significantly reduces migrants' return intentions. Heterogeneity analyses further reveal that the impact of expectation fulfilment varies by migrants' family ties, skill level, and age. Specifically, the fulfilment of wage and career expectations is particularly crucial for younger and high‐skilled migrants. However, consistent with NELM theory, for middle‐aged migrants and migrants with family ties in their hometown, fulfilling expectations—especially regarding career prospects—increases the likelihood of return. This study is among the first to empirically test the role of expectation fulfilment in shaping migrants' return intentions, providing a nuanced understanding of the drivers of return migration. Our findings suggest that host cities can encourage migrants' settlement by addressing their key expectations, especially regarding wages, career opportunities, and quality of life.

Purpose Based on the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), this paper aims to investigate the effects of residents’ place attachment (PA), subjective norms (SNs) and perceived behavioural control (PBC) on their attitudes towards behaviour (AB) and behavioural intention to support tourism (BI). This paper aims to examine whether residents’ AB mediate the relationships between BI and PA, SNs and PBC. Design/methodology/approach The results are obtained using a quantitative method based on data gathered from self-administered questionnaires completed by 406 residents of Hongcun, a Chinese traditional village. Findings The TPB is successfully used to explain Chinese traditional village residents BI. The findings extend the extant research and render the TPB more widely applicable. This study confirms that the inclusion of PA within the framework of the TPB is valid and satisfactory, demonstrating continued support for the coupling of complementary theories to explain tourism development from a resident perspective. Finally, this study extends the literature on residents’ PA and demonstrates its impact on their attitudes and consequent reactions, thus supplementing the limited evidence on PA as a direct predictor of residents’ BI. Specifically, SNs are the critical factor affecting residents’ AB and their BI. Residents’ AB only mediate the relationship between SNs and their BI. Research limitations/implications This paper only includes PA within the framework of the TPB. More constructs should be incorporated to deepen the understanding of residents’ BI. In addition, the data were only collected in a traditional village. Originality/value This paper is one of the first studies to combine PA with the TPB in research on residents’ BI in a developing country – in this instance, China.

Cultural heritage tourism increasingly aims to provide not only recreation but also cultural learning, identity formation, and immersive engagement. This study examines how cultural memory, place attachment, and Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) constructs jointly relate to visitors' experiences and design-oriented insights at Sanhe Ancient Town, China. We develop and empirically examine a Cultural-Affective-Behavioral Intention model that links three cultural-memory pathways to place attachment, TPB components, and an overall cultural heritage tourism experience index. Cross-sectional survey data from 420 on-site visitors were analysed using structural equation modelling and exploratory Random Forest analysis. SEM results indicate that symbolic and narrative pathways are positively associated with place attachment, which in turn is positively associated with TPB constructs and behavioural intention and shows a positive association with higher levels of self-reported tourism experience, whereas the ritual pathway does not exhibit a significant linear effect on attachment. Random Forest analyses further highlight the central roles of behavioural intention, place attachment, and narrative cues while suggesting additional, nonlinear contributions of ritual elements. Taken together, the findings highlight cultural memory and place attachment as core mechanisms for shaping meaningful, sustainability-oriented heritage experiences and offer theory-informed implications for visual and narrative strategies at heritage destinations.

Purpose This study aims at examining drivers of residents' support for sustainable tourism development (STD) in a developing context by integrating the push-pull-mooring (PPM) model with the theory of planned behavior (TPB). Design/methodology/approach This study targeted residents who were working in, or providing tourism-related services from, three major tourist cities in Central Vietnam. A total of 686 residents participated in this study via online and paper-based surveys. The conceptual model and research hypotheses were each assessed using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Findings This study confirmed that perceived empowerment and perceived well-being are push factors, which internally motivate residents' support for sustainable tourism development. Moreover, destination social responsibility and place attachment are pull factors that encourage residents to do so. Further, attitudes towards STD mediate the relationship between mooring factors and residents' intentions to support STD. Finally, the moderating role of subjective norms and perceived behavioral controls serve as mooring factors within the integrated model of PPM and the TPB. Research limitations/implications Future research should use broader sampling and diverse data collection methods. The integrated theoretical framework warrants further validation across contexts. In addition, future studies should explore additional push-pull and mooring factors. This study emphasizes that sustainable tourism is not just about attracting visitors – it is about creating a thriving, engaged community that sees tourism as a force for good. Originality/value This study pioneers the application of the PPM model and the TPB in examining residents' support for sustainable tourism development in a developing context. Moreover, it extends the understanding of how psychological and situational factors influence residents' support for STD. Practically, the study proposes two push-pull activation pathways for policymakers and destination managers to cultivate residents' attitudes towards and intentions to support STD in developing contexts.

PurposeThe paper aims to understand the young residents’ household waste intentions through place attachment (PA) approach where place dependency (PD) and place identity (PLI) influence recycling intentions (RIs). Furthermore, the effect of norms (both subjective and moral) on residents’ association with PLI was also analyzed.Design/methodology/approachThe conceptual model, including the hypothesized relationship between variables, was established through relevant literature. The study extends the theory of planned behavior (TPB) through a place-based approach in young residents’ household waste RIs. The proposed conceptual model also replaced the position of norms (subjective and moral) as antecedents to PLI in the proposed extended and modified TPB model. Partial least square structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) has been used for the statistical analysis of the data. The questionnaires were distributed digitally. The convenience sampling approach was adopted for collecting data.FindingsThe results tenably billed the inclusion of placed-based approach in the TPB and norms (subjective and moral) in predicting PLI of young residents. All the alternative hypotheses in the proposed model were accepted. The predictive power of RIs was 41.4%.Research limitations/implicationsThe research only considered the educated and financially opulent residents, among whom the waste disposal system was well established and may have led to favorable results. The study only limits to measuring intentions, and its organic nature opens vistas for future research studies where more variables could be agglutinated to achieve pronounced prediction power and also further measure actual recycling behavior and practice.Practical implicationsThe study adds to pragmatic implications for local governments and municipalities where the waste collection apparatuses could capitalize on the findings to achieve efficiency in household waste collection and recycling.Social implicationsWith young generation of residents at the helm for forging a cleaner environment, the study motivates environmental enthusiasts and social scientists to better understand household waste RIs. The study will help young generation to become more sensitized towards the environment by making green changes in daily disposal habits.Originality/valueThe study explored two prospects. First, PA (place dependence and place identity) was added as an external variable and precedent to RIs, and second, the norms (both subjective and moral) were taken as antecedents to place identity.

ABSTRACTWhile economic drivers of return migration are well‐studied, the associated social mechanisms and generational nuances remain underexplored. This study investigates how migrants' economic resources in their hometowns influence return intentions through place attachment, with a specific focus on generational differences. Using first‐hand nationwide survey data and multigroup structural equation modeling (MG‐SEM), we find significant intergenerational disparities. Older migrants exhibit stronger return intentions. Although both generations maintain similarly high homeownership rates (approximately 75%), homeownership significantly influences return intentions only for the older generation. For younger migrants, hometown income is a strong predictor of return, suggesting a focus on financial security. Surprisingly, landholdings are insignificant for both groups, implying a shift away from traditional agricultural livelihoods. Although direct economic effects vary generationally, the indirect influence of place attachment remains consistent across generations. Our multidimensional conceptualization of place attachment reveals its positive, progressively moderating role. Favorable economic conditions facilitate stronger hometown‐oriented behaviors, such as longer visits, which in turn strengthen place identity and promote return migration. This progressive place mechanism is particularly pronounced among older homeowners, emphasizing the enduring influence of place‐based identity. These findings provide a nuanced understanding of return migration, moving beyond purely economic explanations to incorporate the complex interplay of proximity‐seeking behavior and psychosocial factors. Our results have implications for targeted rural revitalization strategies in China, particularly for addressing population imbalances and leveraging return migration for regional development.

Purpose: This paper investigates migration behaviors of young migrants to identify the main factors influencing their return intentions. Recognizing that return migration decision-making is a complex and multidimensional process, the paper sheds light on two under-researched topics in migration literature: return migration intentions and young migrants. Methodology: Using a mixed theory approach that accounts for both individual and contextual factors as determinants of possible return, the paper utilizes data obtained through surveys of Croatian migrants. It proposes an ordered logit regression model based on three composite variables—economic success, social integration, and cultural shock—to calculate the return intention probability. Results: The results show that the variables of economic success, social integration, and cultural shock, which were determined through factor analysis, play a significant role in shaping return migration intentions. In particular, the perceived level of social integration has the most significant influence on the likelihood of intention to return, indicating that young migrants are not solely or predominantly motivated by economic factors. Conclusion: The findings suggest that the factors influencing migrants’ return intentions overlap, and as a result, no single theory is adequate for providing a comprehensive understanding of young migrants’ return intentions. For the majority of Croatian migrants, it seems that the myth of return does not exist; they do not plan to return. These findings constitute a valuable foundation for developing migration policy recommendations for both the host and home countries.

The place-based approach to recycling intention: Integrating place attachment into the extended theory of planned behavior

Environmental qualities significantly affect the behaviors and place attachment of users, especially in residential areas. In addition to creating environmental comfort, local green spaces can increase users’ place attachment, improve their mood, enhance friendly company and facilitate social interactions. The study sought to investigate the impact of local green spaces in the historically and culturally valuable residential fabric of Hamadan City in Iran on increasing residents’ social attachment. Derived from the literature on the subject, the conceptual model of the study shows the impact of such factors as social, functional, emotional and spatial bonds on place attachment in the residential context. A total number of 410 residents in the old neighborhoods of Hamadan City were selected by random sampling with a balanced proportion of gender and residence duration in the selected area. The designed questionnaire was distributed among the sample population and the collected data were analyzed using the structural equation modeling method. Then, the t-test and bootstrapping in Smart PLS software were used for testing the research hypotheses and evaluating the significance of the relationships between the research variables in the structural model. The results indicated that among the four types of bonds examined in relation to place attachment, emotional bonds, functional bonds, social bonds and spatial bonds, respectively, had a direct and significant impact on place attachment from the viewpoint of residents. The stronger the sociocultural bonds in historically and culturally valuable residential areas, the more prominent the role of local green spaces in place attachment based on residence duration becomes.

Predicting physical activity intention and behaviour among children in a longitudinal sample

Different migration theories generate competing hypotheses with regard to determinants of return migration. While neoclassical migration theory associates migration to the failure to integrate at the destination, the new economics of labour migration sees return migration as the logical stage after migrants have earned sufficient assets and knowledge and to invest in their origin countries. The projected return is then likely to be postponed for sustained or indefinite periods if integration is unsuccessful. So, from an indication or result of integration failure return is rather seen as a measure of success. Drawing on recent survey data (N = 2,832), this article tests these hypotheses by examining the main determinants of return intention among Moroccan migrants across Europe. The results indicate that structural integration through labour market participation, education and the maintenance of economic and social ties with receiving countries do not significantly affect return intentions. At the same time, investments and social ties to Morocco are positively related, and socio-cultural integration in receiving countries is negatively related to return migration intentions. The mixed results corroborate the idea that there is no uniform process of (return) migration and that competing theories might therefore be partly complementary.

This study investigated the relationship among servicescape, customers’ emotional experience, perceived value, and place attachment in a leisure garden restaurant context. Based on the concept of servicescape proposed by Bitner (1992), this study built a model for the relationship of “servicescape, positive/negative emotions, perceived value, and place attachment” to explore how servicescape is related to customer emotions, perceived value, and place attachment and also clarify the mediating role of positive/negative emotions and perceived value in the relationship between servicescape and place attachment. A questionnaire survey was administered to consumers of leisure garden restaurants in Pingtung City. 326 valid responses were obtained. Based on the methodology of related literature, the data were analyzed using structural equation modeling. Results indicated the overall fit of the model of “servicescape, positive/negative emotions, perceived value, and place attachment” was good. This model suggested that servicescape is positively related to customers’ positive/negative emotions and perceived value; servicescape affects place attachment through positive/negative emotions and perceived value; positive/negative emotions and perceived value mediate the relationship between servicescape and place attachment; positive/negative emotions also mediate the relationship between perceived value and place attachment. Among these variables, perceived value has the greatest overall effect on place attachment. Based on the empirically validated relational model, this study proposed some suggestions on restaurant management as follows: build a good servicescape to attract repatronage of customers; enhance perceived value of the restaurant to increase customers’ place attachment.

The relationship between place attachment and tourist loyalty: A meta-analysis