The impact of environmental variations (temperature and humidity) on Fusarium graminearum in broiler and pig feed.

The co-occurrence of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin B1 (FB1), zearalenone (ZEN), and HT-2 and T-2 toxins in the main Ecuadorian staple cereals (rice, oat flakes, and yellow and white wheat noodles) was evaluated. A ultra high performance liquid chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC/TOFMS) method was developed and validated to screen for the presence of these mycotoxins in those cereal matrices. Matrix-matched calibration curves were used to compensate for ion suppression and extraction losses and the recovery values were in agreement with the minimum requirements of Regulation 401/2006/EC (70–110%). For most mycotoxins, the LODs obtained allowed detection in compliance with the maximum permitted levels set in Regulation EC/2006/1881, with the exception of OTA in all cereals and AFB1 in yellow noodles. Extra target analysis of OTA in oat flakes and wheat noodles was performed by HPLC with fluorescence detection. High rates of contamination were observed in paddy rice (23% DON, 23% FB1, 7% AFB1, 2% AFG1 and 2% AFG2), white wheat noodles (33% DON and 5% OTA) and oat flakes (17% DON, 2% OTA and 2% AFB1), whereas the rates of contamination were lower in polished rice (2% AFG1 and 4% HT-2 toxin) and yellow noodles (5% DON). Low rates of co-occurrence of several mycotoxins were observed only for white wheat noodles (5%) and paddy rice (7%). White noodles were contaminated with DON and/or OTA, while combinations of AFG1, AFB1, DON and FB1 were found in paddy rice. Yellow noodles were contaminated with DON only; oat flakes contained DON, OTA or AFB1, and polished rice was contaminated with AFG1 and HT-2 toxin.

Study on mycotoxin contamination of maize kernels in Spain

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi that occur naturally in foodstuffs, which can cause a large variety of toxic effects on vertebrates including humans. The objectives of this work were to evaluate the co-occurrence of 11 mycotoxins in food products, feed for broiler chicks, laying hens and dairy cattle, assess the human exposure to mycotoxins through food analysis versus consumption data and multimycotoxin biomarkers in urine, and characterize the associated risk of mycotoxin exposure in Brazilian rural areas. Sampling procedures were conducted in 38 small-scale dairy and poultry farms in the surroundings of Pirassununga and Descalvado (State of So Paulo), Pinhalzinho and Erval Velho (State of Santa Catarina). In these farms a total of 86 volunteers were recruited and instructed to provide samples of the morning urine (N = 162) in two sampling periods (April-May/2016 and December/2016), along with samples of rice (N = 66), bean (N = 59), wheat (N = 39), corn flour (N = 21) and corn meal (N = 18) available in their households. Samples of feed for broilers (N = 10), laying hens (N = 20) and dairy cattle (N = 15) were also collected. All samples were analyzed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) for determination of aflatoxins (AF) B1, B2, G1 and G2, fumonisins (F) B1 and B2, ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEN), deoxynivalenol (DON), toxin T-2 and toxin HT-2 in food products and feeds, and AFM1, AFP1, AFQ1, FB1, OTA, T-2, HT-2, DON, de-epoxideoxynivalenol (DOM-1), ZEN, -zearalenol (-ZEL), -zearalenol (-ZEL) and 15-acetyl-DON in urine samples. The mycotoxin levels in urine were adjusted to creatinine concentration in each sample analyzed. In feed samples, median levels of total AF, total FB, ZEN and DON were 100 g/kg, 680 g/kg, 160 g/kg and 200 g/kg, respectively. The co-occurrence of two or more mycotoxins was confirmed in 51% of feed samples. Results indicate a high exposure of farm animals to mycotoxins in the feed, hence emphasizing the need to improve the feed quality regarding the contamination with mycotoxins in small-scale farms in Brazil, and the necessity of include feed in Brazilian regulation, especially for AF, FB, and ZEN. Mycotoxin levels above the Brazilian maximum permitted levels (MPL) were found in rice (1.5%), wheat flour (12.8%) and corn flour (14.3%) samples. Urine determinations revealed the presence of AFM1 and AFP1, DON, OTA, FB1 and ZEN at levels of 0.02-12.0 ng/mg creatinine. Regarding the probable daily intake (PDI) based on food data, only ZEN (0.156 g/kg b.w./day) had a Hazard Quotient (HQ) above the tolerance (> 1). PDI values based on urinary levels for DON, OTA and total AF were 84.914, 0.031 and 0.001 g/kg b.w./day, respectively, resulting in HQ values > 1, which may indicate health risks for the population studied. An informal intervention by means of educational activities and delivery of an information flyer during the first sampling period did not change the exposure levels to mycotoxins in the second sampling period. Further studies are needed to identify food items other than those analyzed in this work as sources of dietary mycotoxins, as well as the contribution of inhalation of contaminated dusts for the exposure. This is the first study to report the risk assessment of mycotoxins based on food and urinary levels in rural areas in Brazil.

Mycotoxins are toxic substances naturally produced by various fungi, and these compounds not only inflict economic damage, but also pose risks to human and animal health. The goal of the present study was to optimize the QuEChERS-based extraction and liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) method for the analysis of 11 mycotoxins, such as aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), fumonisins (FBs), T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, zearalenone (ZEN), and deoxynivalenol (DON), commonly found in feed. The QuEChERS method, characterized by being “quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe”, has become one of the most common extractions and clean-up procedures for mycotoxin analyses in food. Therefore, in this experiment, an optimal method for the analysis of 11 mycotoxins in feed was established by modifying the general QuEChERS method. In this process, it was confirmed that even if feed samples of different weights were extracted, the quantitative value of mycotoxins in the feed was not affected. To reduce matrix effects, 13C-labeled compounds and deuterium were used as internal standards. This optimized method was then applied in the determination of 11 mycotoxins in 736 feed ingredients and compound feeds obtained from South Korea. The results showed that the occurrence rates of FBs, ZEN, and DON were 59.4%, 38.0%, and 32.1%, respectively, and OTA, AFs, and T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin were found in fewer than 1% of the 736 feeds. The mean concentration ranges of FBs, ZEN, and DON were 757–2387, 44–4552, and 248–9680 μg/kg, respectively. Among the samples in which DON and ZEN were detected, 10 and 12 samples exceeded the management recommendation standards presented by the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (MAFRA). However, when the detected concentrations of DON and ZEN were compared with guideline levels in foreign countries, such as the US, Japan, China, and the EU, the number of positive samples changed. In addition, the co-occurrence of mycotoxins in the feed was analyzed, and the results showed that 43.8% of the samples were contaminated with two or three mycotoxins, among which the co-occurrence rate of FBs, ZEN, and DON was the highest. In conclusion, these results suggest the need for stricter management standards for FBs, DON, and ZEN in South Korea, and emphasize the importance of the continuous monitoring of feeds.

Forty-five samples of a landrace of sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum) widely cultivated in Basilicata (Italy) were screened for 17 mycotoxins and potential toxigenic fungal species. Two different LC-MS/MS methods were used for the determination of aflatoxins, ochratoxin A (OTA), Fusarium mycotoxins zearalenone (ZEA), fumonisins (FB1 and FB2), nivalenol (NIV), deoxynivalenol (DON), T-2 and HT-2 toxins and Alternaria mycotoxins altenuene (ALT), alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), tentoxin (TTX) and tenuazonic acid (TeA). Frequency of potential toxigenic fungal species occurrence was: 87% Aspergillus Sect. Nigri; 58% Aspergillus Sect. Flavi; 38% Aspergillus Sect. Circumdati; 42% Alternaria spp.; 33% Penicillium spp. and 20% Fusarium spp. Frequency of mycotoxin occurrence and mean of positives were: 51% OTA, 29.5 µg/kg, 5 samples above the EU limit of 20 µg/kg; 31% aflatoxins, 12.8 µg/kg, two samples above the EU limit of 5 µg/kg for aflatoxin B1; 91% ZEA, 1.4 µg/kg; 78% FB2, 7.6 µg/kg; 58% FB1, 22.8 µg/kg; 38% NIV, 39.5 µg/kg; 36% DON, 6.9 µg/kg; 20% T-2 toxin, 5.6 µg/kg and 22% HT-2 toxin, 13.8 µg/kg. For the Alternaria mycotoxins, 100% of samples contained TeA, 4817.9 µg/kg; 93% TTX, 29.7 µg/kg; 56% AOH, 114.4 µg/kg; 33% AME, 13.0 µg/kg and 9% ALT, 61.7 µg/kg. Co-occurrence of mycotoxins in each sample ranged from 2 to 16 mycotoxins (mean 7). No statistical correlation was found between moulds and their mycotoxins occurrence. Within the four groups of peppers collected herein (fresh, dried, grounded and fried) higher percentages of contamination and mycotoxin levels were measured in grounded peppers, whereas much lower values were observed for fried peppers. The high percentages of positive samples and the high levels of some mycotoxins observed in this study confirm the susceptibility of peppers to mycotoxin contamination and claims for an improvement of the conditions used during production and drying process.

Mycotoxin contamination in maize poses significant food and feed safety risks, particularly in regions with variable climatic conditions like Serbia. This study investigated the occurrence of regulated mycotoxins in maize harvested across the Republic of Serbia from 2021 to 2023, emphasizing the impact of climatic factors. A total of 548 samples of unprocessed maize grains were analysed for the presence of key mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, and trichothecenes type A (T-2 and HT-2 toxins), using validated analytical methods. The results revealed high contamination frequencies, with aflatoxins and fumonisins being the most prevalent. The results revealed substantial temporal variability and frequent co-contamination of mycotoxins. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) was the most concerning contaminant, with 73.2% of the samples in 2022 exceeding the European regulatory limit for human consumption (5 µg/kg) for un processed maize grains, reaching peak concentrations of 527 µg/kg, which is 105.4 times higher than the allowed limit. For animal feed, the limit of 20 µg/kg was exceeded in 40.5% of the samples, with the highest concentration being 26.4 times greater than the maximum allowable level. In 2021, the non-compliance rates for AFB1 in food and feed were 8.3% and 2.3%, respectively, while in 2023, they were 23.2% and 12.2%, respectively. Fumonisins contamination was also high, particularly in 2021, with fumonisin B1 (FB1) detected in 87.1% of samples and average concentrations reaching 4532 µg/kg. Although levels decreased in 2023 (70.7% occurrence, average 885 µg/kg), contamination remained significant. Deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination was consistently high (>70% of samples), with peak concentrations of 606 µg/kg recorded in 2021. Zearalenone (ZEN) and ochratoxin A (OTA) occurred less frequently, but ZEN levels peaked in 2022 at 357.6 µg/kg, which is above the regulatory limit of 350 µg/kg for food. Trichothecenes (HT-2 and T-2 toxins) were detected sporadically, with concentrations well below critical thresholds. Co-occurrence of mycotoxins was frequent, with significant mixtures detected, particularly between aflatoxins and fumonisins, as well as other fusarial toxins. The analysis demonstrated that temperature, humidity, and rainfall during both the growing and harvest seasons strongly influenced mycotoxin levels, with the most severe contamination occurring under specific climatic conditions. Notably, the highest mycotoxin levels, like aflatoxins, were linked to warmer temperatures and lower rainfall. The high non-compliance rates for aflatoxins and fumonisins and co-contamination pose significant food and feed safety risks. From a public health perspective, chronic exposure to contaminated maize increases the likelihood of carcinogenesis and reproductive disorders. Reduced productivity and bioaccumulation in animal tissues/products represent serious economic and safety concerns for livestock. This study provides insights into the potential risks to food and feed safety and the need for enhanced regulatory frameworks, continuous monitoring, and mitigation strategies in Serbia as well as other geographical regions.

Eighty-two samples of dried food commodities from Cameroon were screened and quantified for different mycotoxins, including fumonisin B1 (FB1), zearalenone (ZEA), deoxynivalenol (DON), aflatoxin (AF) and ochratoxin A (OTA), by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), respectively. The percentage of positive samples was as follows: FB1 41%, AF 51%, ZEA 57%, DON 65% and OTA 3%. High FB1 contents were found in maize, averaging 3,684µg/kg (range: 37-24,225µg/kg), whereas the highest average ZEA level was found in peanuts (70µg/kg), followed by maize (69µg/kg), rice (67µg/kg) and beans (48µg/kg) with no ZEA was detected in soybeans. DON contents were low, ranging from 13 to 273µg/kg, and for AF the average content was 2.6µg/kg with peanuts and maize as principal substrates. The incidence of OTA was low, with a mean level of 6.4µg/kg recorded. The majority (79%) of samples contained more than one mycotoxin and the most frequent co-occurrence found was FB1 + ZEA + DON, detected in 21% of samples (mainly maize) analysed. Co-contamination with FB1 + ZEA + DON + AF was found in 11% of the samples. Although a large proportion of samples had fairly low levels of individual mycotoxins, this should be of concern as the co-occurrence of mycotoxins may generate additive or synergistic effect in humans, especially if the respective commodities are consumed almost on a daily basis.

Background In the EU, sampling and analysis for the official control of the levels of mycotoxins in foodstuffs should be performed in accordance with the methods and criteria set out in Commission Regulation 401/2006. For each mycotoxin, the values of recovery, repeatability and reproducibility of the analytical method selected by each laboratory must fall within the range of acceptability as prescribed in the Regulation. Aims Carry out a survey on current practices concerning the use and application of mycotoxin test methods for what are considered to be the most current commercially significant mycotoxins. Materials and Methods Nineteen control, commercial and research laboratories from 12 countries (United Kingdom, Italy, Belgium, Spain, Germany, The Netherlands, Bulgaria, Hungary, Greece, Turkey, New Zealand and China) participated in a survey of current practices concerning the use and application of methods for the determination of the principal mycotoxins found in foods and subject to regulatory control: [aflatoxins (AFs: AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2), aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) fumonisins (FBs: FB1, FB2), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), patulin (PAT), zearalenone (ZEA), and T-2 and HT-2 toxins]. Results and Discussion Fourteen of the laboratories surveyed were accredited to ISO 17025:2005 and the accreditation paralleled participation in proficiency testing schemes such as FAPAS®. Most of the laboratories declared that they received laboratory samples weighing between 0.004–1 kg. The number and types of food matrices analysed for each mycotoxin or group of mycotoxins varied consistently between mycotoxins, laboratories and countries. In general the highest number of food matrices capable of being assessed for a particular mycotoxin was for OTA followed - in decreasing order - by AFs, DON, ZEA, T-2/HT-2 toxins, FBs, AFM1 and PAT. Analysis for OTA, AFs, PAT, ZEA, DON, FBs, T-2/HT-2 toxins and AFM1, were performed in 95%, 84%, 74%, 74%, 63%, 58%, 58% and 53% of the laboratories, respectively. Most laboratories stated that they used HPLC coupled with either a fluorometer, ultraviolet or mass spectrometric (MS) detectors for detection and quantification of mycotoxins. Only one laboratory used GC/MS for analysis of T-2 and HT-2 toxins whereas two laboratories used TLC based methods for the determination of all mycotoxins except fumonisins. The use of LC-MS methodology by eight laboratories is remarkable because LC/MS is not an official method for mycotoxins within a CEN or AOAC context. Some mycotoxins are not amenable to all detection techniques reported above. ELISA kits were used in three laboratories for the analysis of AFs, OTA, ZEA, DON, FBs and/or T-2/HT-2 toxins. Several other test kits were used in one laboratory for the determination of OTA (six different test kits) and DON (eight different test kits). Six different definitions of limit of detection (LOD) and nine different definitions of limit of quantification (LOQ) have been reported by participating laboratories with the signal/noise ratio being the most popular (used by 40% of laboratories). In some cases the values of LOD, LOQ and measurement uncertainty for the same mycotoxin varied from laboratory to laboratory. In particular, a large variability of measurement uncertainty was noted that was probably due to non-harmonized interpretation of the term. Conclusion This survey suggests that the primary issues needing to be harmonized are: accreditation needed, appropriate size of laboratory sample, guidelines on the most convenient analytical method for each combination of mycotoxins/matrix, use of method validated through a collaborative study, participation in proficiency testing, use of reference/certified materials/standard solutions, use of the same definition/calculation for LOD, LOQ, recovery and measurement uncertainty.

Liquid chromatography coupled with single or tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/(MS)) is routinely used for the simultaneous determination of mycotoxins in food and feed although official methods using this technique have not yet been adopted by the European Committee for Standardization and the Association of Analytical Communities. A proficiency test (PT) was conducted for the simultaneous determination of up to 11 mycotoxins (aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), aflatoxin B2 (AFB2), aflatoxin G1 (AFG1), aflatoxin G2 (AFG2), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), T-2 toxin (T-2), HT-2 toxin (HT-2), zearalenone (ZEA), fumonisin B1 (FB1) and fumonisin B2 (FB2)) in maize using LC-MS/(MS) to benchmark laboratories currently using this technique and to obtain information on currently used methodologies and method-related performances. Each participant received the following: instructions; a comprehensive questionnaire; a mixed mycotoxins calibration solution; a spiking solution (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2, OTA, DON, T-2, HT-2, ZEA, FB1 and FB2); and two test materials, namely a contaminated maize sample and a blank maize sample to be spiked with a spiking solution containing 11 mycotoxins. Laboratory results were rated with z-scores. Of the 64 laboratories enrolled in the PT, 41 laboratories from 14 countries returned 43 sets of results for various combinations of analytes. The majority of laboratories (61%) reported results for all 11 mycotoxins, whereas the remaining laboratories reported results for a restricted combination (from 2 to 10 analytes). For contaminated maize and spiked maize the percentage of satisfactory z-score values (|z| ?2) were: DON 55% and 49%, FB1 50% and 30%, FB2 52% and 38%, ZEA 68% and 64%, T-2+HT-2 toxins 82% and 85%, OTA 58% and 60%, AFB1 56% and 62%, AFG1 73% and 84%, AFB2 40% and 78%, AFG2 64% and 78%, respectively. The poorest performance (|z| >3) was obtained for FB1 (31%), FB2 (32%), AFB1 (32%) and AFB2 (32%) in contaminated maize and for DON (35%), FB1 (63%) and FB2 (52%) in spiked maize. Mean recovery results were acceptable for all mycotoxins (74% to 109%), except for fumonisins, where these were unacceptably high (159% for FB1 and 163% for FB2). A robust and reliable method for simultaneous determination of 11 mycotoxins in maize could not be identified from the results of this PT. Additional experimental work is necessary to set up a method suitable for inter-laboratory validation. The results of this PT and the relevant method's details can be useful to identify methodology strengths and weaknesses.

The multi-biomarker approach was used to validate urinary biomarkers in piglets administered boluses contaminated with mixtures of deoxynivalenol (DON), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), fumonisin B1 (FB1), zearalenone (ZEA) and ochratoxin A (OTA) at different concentrations. Boluses contaminated with mycotoxins were prepared by slurrying and freezedrying feed material fortified with culture extracts of selected toxigenic fungi. Piglets were individually placed in metabolic cages to collect urine before gavage and 24 h post dose. Urine samples were hydrolysed with β-glucuronidase and analysed by a multi-biomarker LC-MS/MS method developed and validated to identify and measure biomarkers of FB1, OTA, DON, ZEA and AFB1. Urinary levels of FB1, OTA, DON + de-epoxy-deoxynivalenol, ZEA + alphazearalenol and aflatoxin M1 were selected as biomarkers of FB1, OTA, DON, ZEA and AFB1, respectively. Mean percentages of dietary mycotoxins excreted as biomarkers in 24 h post dose urine were 36.8% for ZEA, 28.5% for DON, 2.6% FB1, 2.6% for OTA and 2.5% for AFB1. A good correlation was observed between the amount of mycotoxins ingested and the amount of relevant biomarkers excreted in 24 h post dose urine. Linear dose-response correlation coefficients ranged between 0.68 and 0.78 for the tested couples of mycotoxin/biomarker. The good sensitivity of the LC-MS/MS method and the good dose-response correlations observed in this study permitted to validate the selected mycotoxin biomarkers in piglets at dietary levels close to the maximum permitted levels reported in Commission Directive 2003/100/EC for AFB1 and the guidance values reported in Commission Recommendation 2006/576/EC for DON, ZEA, OTA and FB1.

Co-contamination of multiple mycotoxins in feed has become one of the most important issues in the world. In this study, the characteristics and interactions of co-contamination among 15 mycotoxins were explored in dairy cow feed, including total mixed ration (TMR), silage, maize, and hay feed. The results showed that four dairy cow feeds were constantly contaminated with mycotoxins, including zearalenone (ZEN), fumonisins (FBs), deoxynivalenol (DON), ochratoxin A (OTA), T-2 toxin (T-2), and aflatoxins (AFs). The contamination level of each mycotoxin was low, but the probability of co-contamination by three or more mycotoxins in one sample was very high. Between DON and aflatoxin B2 (AFB2), between aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) and OTA, between FB2 and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), between 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15-ADON) and ZEN, and between fumonisin B1 (FB1) and fumonisin B3 (FB3), and between aflatoxin M2 (AFM2) and aflatoxin G2 (AFG2), there were significant and strong correlations. Among the four typical feed samples, the combinations DON + ZEN, DON + FB1, FB1 + ZEN, OTA + ZEN, DON + 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3-ADON), 3-ADON + ZEN, T-2 + ZEN, fumonisin B2 (FB2) + ZEN, and DON + FB3 had higher interaction rates than the other combinations (≥43.75%). Our study not only reveals that co-contamination with multiple mycotoxins is relatively common in dairy cow feed but also highlights the significant correlations between various mycotoxins and assesses the likelihood of their interactions. These findings are crucial for ensuring feed safety and safeguarding animal health.

In this study, a total of 80 peanut butter, hazelnut butter, and chocolate samples were obtained from local markets in Ankara, Turkey. These foods were analyzed for twelve toxicological important mycotoxins, such as aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), aflatoxin B2 (AFB2), aflatoxin G1 (AFG1), and aflatoxin G2 (AFG2); fumonisin B1 (FB1) and fumonisin B2 (FB2); ochratoxin A (OTA); sterigmatocystin (STE); deoxynivalenol (DON); zearalenone (ZON); T-2 toxin (T2); and HT-2 toxin (HT2) by the LC–MS/MS multi-mycotoxin method. In addition to this analysis, the presence of total aerobic mesophilic bacteria was investigated in the samples. The samples were analyzed microbiologically using standard procedures. Finally, the minimum and maximum levels of AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, FB2, OTA, STE, DON, ZON, T2, and HT2 in the samples were found to be 0.04–27.37 µg/kg, 0.06–6.19 µg/kg, 0.14–0.40 µg/kg, 2.73–2.93 µg/kg, 0.01–37.26 µg/kg, 0.19–2.25 µg/kg, 11.81–42.09 µg/kg, 0.03–7.57 µg/kg, 1.41–2.54 µg/kg, and 6.94–7.43 µg/kg, respectively. AFG2 and FB1 were not detected in any of the samples. The most frequently detected mycotoxins in analyzed samples were OTA (78.75%) and AFB1 (75%). In addition, total aerobic mesophilic bacteria were isolated from 53.75% of samples. Some of the tested food samples contained mycotoxins above the Turkish Food Codex maximum limit.

Children's exposure to mycotoxins and risk characterization using urinary biomarkers in São Paulo, Brazil.

Alternaria alternata, A. tenuissima, Fusarium graminearum, F. semitectum, F. verticillioides, Aspergillus flavus, and Aspergillus section Nigri strains obtained from blueberries during the 2009 and 2010 harvest season from Entre Ríos, Argentina were analyzed to determine their mycotoxigenic potential. Taxonomy status at the specific level was determined both on morphological and molecular grounds. Alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), aflatoxins (AFs), zearalenone (ZEA), fumonisins (FBs), and ochratoxin A (OTA) were analyzed by HPLC and the trichotecenes deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), HT-2 toxin (HT-2), T-2 toxin (T-2), fusarenone X (FUS-X), 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3-AcDON), and 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15-AcDON) by GC. Twenty-five out of forty two strains were able to produce some of the mycotoxins analyzed. Fifteen strains of Aspergillus section Nigri were capable of producing Fumonisin B1 (FB1); two of them also produced Fumonisin B2 (FB2) and one Fumonisin B3 (FB3). One of the F. graminearum isolated produced ZEA, HT-2, and T-2 and the other one was capable of producing ZEA and DON. Two A. alternata isolates produced AOH and AME. Four A. tenuissima were capable of producing AOH and three of them produced AME as well. One Aspergillu flavus strain produced aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), aflatoxin B2 (AFB2), and aflatoxin G1 (AFG1). To our knowledge, this is the first report showing mycotoxigenic capacity of fungal species isolated from blueberries that include other fungi than Alternaria spp.

Multiple mycotoxin co-occurrence in maize grown in three agro-ecological zones of Tanzania