Abstract
Seed-based pigeon diets could be expected to result in exposure of pigeons to mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol (DON). Ingestion of low to moderate contamination levels of DON may impair intestinal health, immune function and/or pathogen fitness, resulting in altered host-pathogen interactions and thus different outcome of infections. Here we demonstrate that DON was one of the most frequently detected mycotoxins in seed-based racing pigeons feed, contaminating 5 out of 10 samples (range 177–1,466 μg/kg). Subsequently, a toxicokinetic analysis revealed a low absolute oral bioavailability (F) of DON in pigeons (30.4%), which is comparable to other avian species. Furthermore, semi-quantitative analysis using high-resolution mass spectrometry revealed that DON-3α-sulphate is the major metabolite of DON in pigeons after intravenous as well as oral administration. Following ingestion of DON contaminated feed, the intestinal epithelial cells are exposed to significant DON concentrations which eventually may affect intestinal translocation and colonization of bacteria. Feeding pigeons a DON contaminated diet resulted in an increased percentage of pigeons shedding Salmonella compared to birds fed control diet, 87 ± 17% versus 74 ± 13%, respectively. However, no impact of DON was observed on the Salmonella induced disease signs, organ lesions, faecal and organ Salmonella counts. The presented risk assessment indicates that pigeons are frequently exposed to mycotoxins such as DON, which can affect the outcome of a Salmonella infection. The increasing number of pigeons shedding Salmonella suggests that DON can promote the spread of the bacterium within pigeon populations.
Highlights
Fusarium is one of the most important toxigenic fungal genera in small grain cereals
ND = not detected or below decision limit (CCα) No levels above the CCα were detected of the following mycotoxins: aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2, altenuene, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol, diacetoxyscirpenol, fusarenon-X, neosolaniol, nivalenol, roquefortine-C, sterigmatocystin, T-2 toxin, and HT-2 toxin
Besides DON, most pigeon feed samples were contaminated with following mycotoxins: AOH (9 out of 10 samples, 64 ± 50 μg/kg) (CCα = 12 μg/kg), 3-ADON (5 out of 10, 15 ± 14 μg/kg) (CCα = 5 μg/kg), alternariol methylether (AME) (4 out of 10, 102 ± 52 μg/kg) (CCα = 18 μg/kg) and ZEN (3 out of 10, 60 ± 14 μg/kg) (CCα = 18 μg/kg) (Table 1)
Summary
Fusarium is one of the most important toxigenic fungal genera in small grain cereals Members of this genus can cause grain yield losses, the interest in Fusarium head blight is primarily fuelled by the ability of the majority of the Fusarium species to produce mycotoxins. These mycotoxins exhibit an intrinsic toxicity and pose a potential acute or chronic health threat to humans and animals upon ingestion of contaminated food or feed [1, 2]. Data describing these toxicokinetic characteristics in pigeons are lacking
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