Abstract
Although most micro-level studies show the positive impact of adaptation on food security and household income, these are only a few of the outcomes adaptation is intended to achieve. Farmers’ livelihoods function in complex ways such that an understanding the multidimensional outcome of adaptation is important. These necessitate the use of multiple indicators in the evaluation of the impact of adaptation. Based on data collected from 810 randomly selected households in central Ethiopia, this study investigates the impacts of adaptation strategies on the sustainability of the livelihoods of farmers. The economic, social, and environmental outcomes were integrated to construct the Livelihood Sustainability Index. The endogenous switching regression model, which accounts for unobserved heterogeneity and possible endogeneity, was used to examine the impact of using adaptation strategies. With a mean score of 41, the farmers had lower levels of livelihood sustainability. Farmers switching crop type, diversifying crops, planting improved seeds, engaging in land management activities, and using irrigation had a higher livelihood sustainability index compared to the counterfactual case in which they did not use them. Non-farm employment and migration significantly increased livelihood sustainability for the using households. However, had these factors been used by the non-users, it would have resulted in reduced livelihood sustainability. Farmers using more than four adaptation strategies had more sustainable livelihoods than using fewer strategies. The findings affirm that adaptation contributes to livelihood improvement. However, since the farmers are far from achieving a higher level of sustainable livelihoods, policies shall focus on maximizing the returns to be obtained from using adaptation strategies. This includes improving access to ecosystem services through environmental protection measures, increasing production efficiency through improved access to and proper utilization of farm inputs, expanding irrigation facilities, creating decent employment opportunities, and enhancing farmers’ skills through entrepreneurial training.
Highlights
We found that households not using non-farm activities, which appear to be better-off farmers, would not have benefitted had they engaged in these activities
Number of adaptation strategies is positively associated with farmers’ livelihood sustainability in the three agro-ecological settings: we found that the livelihood of smallholder farmers in the three areas using more than four strategies was more sustainable than when using a smaller number of strategies
Promoting adaptation is a key strategy to help smallholder farmers in Ethiopia who are under increasing threat of rainfall variability and extreme events to sustain their livelihoods
Summary
Climate change and variability (CCV) is among the major threats impinging on the livelihood of the rural population of developing countries. Vulnerability to CCV overlaps with poverty in a pronounced way in these countries, leading to distressed livelihoods [1]. Spatial differences and unpredictable temporal changes in climate variables make agricultural activities uncertain and livelihoods strained. The effects of CCV are more severe among smallholder farmers who rely heavily on rain-fed and climate-sensitive agriculture [2]. It is only when temperature and rainfall are adequate and optimal that farmers can benefit from their traditional farming systems and livelihood strategies.
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