The Hand That Feeds: The Complex Relations of Human–Animal Feeding

BackgroundIn Norway, 3 million discarded egg-laying hens are destructed annually, which equals 1500 tons pure hen meat. Due to the slaughter methods used, this raw material is handled as a high-risk waste, while in reality it constitutes a source of valuable components like proteins and lipids.MethodsThis study assess different processing methods (thermal treatment, enzymatic hydrolysis and silaging) for utilization of discarded egg-laying hens for the production of ingredients for human consumption and animal feed. The processing methods were evaluated on the basis of quantity and quality of the obtained products.ResultsThermal treatment and enzymatic hydrolysis resulted in extraction of good quality lipids from the raw material. The separated oil (50.1–82.3% of the total lipid content in the raw material) was of high quality based on the content of free fatty acids (≤ 1.0%) and total oxidation value (≤ 3.9). Enzymatic hydrolysis also enabled separation of protein in the form of protein hydrolysate. Addition of Protamex and Papain+Bromelain significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased the protein content (85.1–94.6%) and decreased the lipid content (0.3–1.1%) in the hydrolysate compared to autolysis (protein content: 64.8–72.3%, lipid content: 1.0–2.6%). Silaging increased the protein digestibility (63.2–79.7% compared to 57.3–66.2% for untreated raw material), and thus constitutes a good method for utilizing the protein content of the raw material for animal feed.ConclusionThe biotechnological processing methods thermal treatment, enzymatic hydrolysis and silaging can be used to increase the utilization of discarded egg-laying hens for production of ingredients for human consumption and animal feed.

ABSTRACTSoutheast Anatolia has been an ideal place for pastoralism since the Neolithic period. However, there is a lack of information on human–animal relationships from both archaeological settlements and contemporary societies in the region. Through ethnographic fieldwork and exploratory case studies in the mountainous Ömerli district, we explored the dependency and complex relationships between pastoral groups and various animal species in Southeast Anatolia. The case studies revealed affectionate and emotional bonds between shepherds and some individuals of domestic herds, similar to pet–human relationships in urban societies. Shepherds gave human names to certain animals; sometimes these were the names of their close friends or the names of their own children. Grief and prolonged grief was also common among Ömerli shepherds following the loss, death, or sale of these emotionally bonded animals. It was further observed that a single species (domestic or wild) often had complex and multi-purpose relationships with shepherd groups. While tortoises and hares, for instance, were used as sources of meat, the bone, blood, intestine, skin, and shell of these species were often used in traditional medicine. Although pastoral groups are completely dependent on domestic herds for their basic subsistence, Ömerli shepherds were observed to be regular hunters. It appears that the economic benefits were not the only promoters for pastoral subsistence in the study area; compassion and emotional affection for particular animals also reinforced enthusiasm for the practice. Therefore, it can be argued that the data obtained from pastoral villages in the mountainous Ömerli district help us understand interactions and relationships between humans and nonhuman animals in pastoral societies of Southeast Anatolia.

Numerous methods are routinely applied for sugar profile analysis. There is a need for a method that can analyze for the common mono- and disaccharides in human food, pet food, and animal feed. There was no compendia method that had such a large scope of coverage. This requires a method that can overcome the common issues seen with the methods available today, which can have interferences or issues with precision and accuracy when applying them to other matrices. To develop and validate a method that can meet the Standard Method Performance Requirements (SMPR®) outlined by the AOAC INTERNATIONAL Stakeholder Panel on Strategic Food Analytical Methods (SMPR 2018.001). The current work describes an optimized high-performance anion exchange with pulsed amperometric detection method that builds on the previously published work from this laboratory for the analysis of nutritionally relevant sugar compounds including galactose, glucose, fructose, sucrose, isomaltulose, lactose, and maltose. This method was optimized to provide coverage across a variety of different matrices, including human food, dietary supplements, pet food, and animal feed. A global multilaboratory validation was conducted to validate the method and compare against the SMPR requirements. A summary of the validation data is presented. The requirements set forth by AOAC SMPR 2018.001 were all met with this method. The method and data from the global multilaboratory validation were reviewed by the AOAC Expert Review Panel, and determined the method met the SMPR requirements. The method was granted AOAC First Action Official MethodsSM status.

Aflatoxin is a type of mycotoxin originating from fungi that contaminates human food and animal feeds, causing serious health effects in humans and animals. The study aims to determine fungal infestation and mycotoxin contamination of human food and animal feeds for public health initiatives in Bomet County. A quarter of a kilogram of ninety-one samples was taken randomly from each household and agro vets shops sampled during the study in brown bags to Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI) laboratory in a deep freezer before laboratory investigation by culturing on mycological media. Fungi classification was based on morphological features. Mycotoxin detection was done using the ELISA-based EnviroLogix QuickTox Kit and the positive samples, was subjected to High-performance Liquid Chromatography analysis for QC purposes. Fusarium spp., Aspergillus spp., Alternaria spp., Mucor spp., Rhizopus spp., Penicillium spp. and, Xeromyces spp. were isolated from cereals and animal feed. Of all the samples analyzed 34.1% were positive for aflatoxins and 17% of the samples analyzed were exceeding the acceptable levels. AFB1 and AFB2 were the most commonly identified, the largest proportion of Aflatoxins ranges from 0 µg/kg to 480 µg/kg. According to the European Union's acceptable limits, amounts of aflatoxin detected in some foods were unsafe and not fit for human consumption. The presence of aflatoxins in staple foods poses significant health risks, including hepatocarcinogenic effects, and has economic implications for food security. Pre-harvest and post-harvest practices can be applied to prevent or minimize aflatoxin levels in food, such as Crop protection, drying of cereals, sorting moldy or damaged Kernels, storing food in a dry place, use of fungicides and even use of gamma rays to radiate crops.

For thousands of years, cereals have been a key source of food for human meals and animal feed, and a considerable number of by-products are created throughout the whole processing food chain, from farm to fork. The germ and outer layers (bran) formed from wet and dry milling of cereals, brewer’s leftover grain produced during brewing of cereals, or other kinds received from the making of bread and starch manufacturing industries make up the majority of these by-products. Cereal by-products are a great cheaper source of nutritional fibers, proteins, carbs and sugars, minerals, and antioxidants (including vitamins and polyphenolic compounds), among other nutrients. These by-products are frequently degraded and discarded, or, in the best-case scenario, utilized for animal fertilizer or feed. The desire of industries and the worldwide markets to supply unique, sustainable, and inventive resolutions for the management of cereal-based by-products is developing quickly, as is the global population’s awareness of sustainability of the environment and healthy lifestyles and well-being. Thus, the aim of the present chapter is to explore various innovative processing techniques apart from traditional methods of processing. Meanwhile, emphasis is given to different kinds of cereal by-products along with their application in the food system. Finally, regulations related to the processing of cereals are also covered.

In the European Union, zero tolerance provisions were established for substances which are not permitted or explicitly prohibited to occur at any concentration level in food or animal feed. The...

BACKGROUNDPesticide residues in animal feed can endanger animal health and compromise the safety of livestock products for human consumption. Even though policymakers such as the European Union and the World Health Organization have established maximum residue levels (MRLs) for pesticides in both human food and animal feed, there is no systematic management of pesticides in animal feed that considers the entire supply chain. In response, we propose a framework for defining consistent MRLs for pesticides in animal feed that assesses the impact of defined MRLs on upstream (e.g., MRLs in feed crops) and downstream (e.g., MRLs in livestock products) sectors of the livestock‐product supply chain.RESULTSThe MRLs determined for the selected pesticides in the feed of cattle and sheep as case study animals indicate that lipophilic pesticides tend to have lower MRLs than hydrophilic pesticides, primarily due to the relatively high toxicity and biotransfer factors of lipophilic pesticides. In addition, we observe that, primarily for lipophilic pesticides, upstream and downstream regulations are not aligned in terms of defining MRLs in feed using current MRLs in crops with relevance to feed and foods of animal origin.CONCLUSIONSome of the current pesticide regulations in the livestock‐product supply chain need to be re‐evaluated to ensure that MRLs in the upstream sector (i.e., crops) do not result in unacceptable residues in the downstream sector (i.e., MRLs in livestock products affecting animal and human health). Finally, we provide recommendations for optimizing the derivation of MRLs in feed, including the evaluation of residue fate during feed and food manufacturing processes. © 2022 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

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SummaryThe endeavour to elevate the nutritional value of oat (Avena sativa) by altering the oil composition and content positions it as an optimal crop for fostering human health and animal feed. However, optimization of oil traits on oat through conventional breeding is challenging due to its quantitative nature and complexity of the oat genome. We introduced two constructs containing three key genes integral to lipid biosynthesis and/or regulatory pathways from Arabidopsis (AtWRI1 and AtDGAT1) and Sesame (SiOLEOSIN) into the oat cultivar ‘Park’ to modify the fatty acid composition. Four homozygous transgenic lines were generated with a transformation frequency of 7%. The expression of these introduced genes initiated a comprehensive transcriptional reprogramming in oat grains and leaves. Notably, endogenous DGAT, WRI1 and OLEOSIN genes experienced upregulation, while genes associated with fatty acid biosynthesis, such as KASII, SACPD and FAD2, displayed antagonistic expression patterns between oat grains and leaves. Transcriptomic analyses highlighted significant differential gene expression, particularly enriched in lipid metabolism. Comparing the transgenic oat plants with the wild type, we observed a remarkable increase of up to 34% in oleic acid content in oat grains. Furthermore, there were marked improvements in the total oil content in oat leaves, as well as primary metabolites changes in both oat grains and leaves, while maintaining homeostasis in the transgenic oat plants. These findings underscore the effectiveness of genetic engineering in manipulating oat oil composition and content, offering promising implications for human consumption and animal feeding through oat crop improvement programmes.

Relief for fish stocks: oceanic fatty acids in transgenic oilseeds

In an endeavor to make Europe carbon-neutral, and to foster a circular economy, improving food waste management has been identified by the European Union (EU) as a key factor. In this study, we consider 21 pathways, covering: (i) prevention; (ii) reuse for both human consumption and animal feed; (iii) material recycling as an input into the food and chemical industries; (iv) nutrient recycling; and (v) energy/fuel recovery. To include all types of impact, a sustainability assessment, encompassing environmental, economic, and social pillars, is performed and complemented with societal life cycle costing. The results indicate that after prevention, reuse for human consumption and animal feed is the most preferred option, and, in most cases, nutrient recycling and energy recovery are favored over material recycling for chemical production. While highlighting that the food waste management hierarchy should be supported with quantitative sustainability analyses, the findings also illustrate that biochemical pathways should be improved to be competitive despite the fact that food waste valorization has the potential to satisfy the EU demand for the chemicals investigated. Yet, the results clearly show that the potential benefits of improving emerging technologies would still not eclipse the benefits related to food waste prevention and its redistribution.

Thermoplastic extrusion technology has become a cornerstone in the food processing industry, offering a versatile and efficient method for producing a wide range of food products. This technology is especially significant due to its status as a "clean technology," characterized by minimal environmental impact, efficient energy use, and the ability to produce food with consistent quality and safety. The process involves the continuous cooking, mixing, and shaping of raw materials, allowing for the creation of a diverse array of products that cater to both human consumption and animal feed. One of the key advantages of thermoplastic extrusion is its ability to produce pre-cooked and instant flours, which are highly popular in consumer markets. These flours are not only convenient but also enable the production of other products, such as snacks, breakfast cereals, and even infant formulas. The abundance of extruded products on supermarket shelves, ranging from instant noodles to textured vegetable proteins, is a testament to the versatility and consumer appeal of this technology. Moreover, thermoplastic extrusion is particularly beneficial for small, medium, and large enterprises alike. The technology is adaptable, with a variety of equipment available to suit different scales of production. This flexibility, combined with the relatively low labor requirements, makes it an attractive option for businesses of all sizes. The process also allows for the use of diverse raw materials, including cereals, legumes, and even by-products from other industries, which can be efficiently transformed into high-value products. In the realm of animal feed, extruded products are equally important. The technology allows for the precise control of nutritional content and physical properties, resulting in feed that meets the specific needs of different animals. This has led to the widespread adoption of extrusion technology in the production of pet foods, aquafeeds, and livestock feed. In conclusion, thermoplastic extrusion technology is a pivotal innovation in food processing, offering numerous benefits across various sectors. Its clean technology status, ease of use, and adaptability make it a vital tool in modern food production, enabling the creation of a vast array of products that meet the demands of today's consumers. Whether for human consumption or animal feed, extruded products are a staple in the food industry, with their presence only expected to grow as technology advances.

Thermoplastic extrusion technology has become a cornerstone in the food processing industry, offering a versatile and efficient method for producing a wide range of food products. This technology is especially significant due to its status as a "clean technology," characterized by minimal environmental impact, efficient energy use, and the ability to produce food with consistent quality and safety. The process involves the continuous cooking, mixing, and shaping of raw materials, allowing for the creation of a diverse array of products that cater to both human consumption and animal feed. One of the key advantages of thermoplastic extrusion is its ability to produce pre-cooked and instant flours, which are highly popular in consumer markets. These flours are not only convenient but also enable the production of other products, such as snacks, breakfast cereals, and even infant formulas. The abundance of extruded products on supermarket shelves, ranging from instant noodles to textured vegetable proteins, is a testament to the versatility and consumer appeal of this technology. Moreover, thermoplastic extrusion is particularly beneficial for small, medium, and large enterprises alike. The technology is adaptable, with a variety of equipment available to suit different scales of production. This flexibility, combined with the relatively low labor requirements, makes it an attractive option for businesses of all sizes. The process also allows for the use of diverse raw materials, including cereals, legumes, and even by-products from other industries, which can be efficiently transformed into high-value products. In the realm of animal feed, extruded products are equally important. The technology allows for the precise control of nutritional content and physical properties, resulting in feed that meets the specific needs of different animals. This has led to the widespread adoption of extrusion technology in the production of pet foods, aquafeeds, and livestock feed. In conclusion, thermoplastic extrusion technology is a pivotal innovation in food processing, offering numerous benefits across various sectors. Its clean technology status, ease of use, and adaptability make it a vital tool in modern food production, enabling the creation of a vast array of products that meet the demands of today's consumers. Whether for human consumption or animal feed, extruded products are a staple in the food industry, with their presence only expected to grow as technology advances.

Brewer's spent grain (BSG), a major brewing industry byproduct, is generated in large quantities annually. This review summarizes research into the composition and preservation of BSG, different extraction techniques for BSG proteins and phenolic acids, and the bioactivities of these phenolic components. Moreover, this article also highlights BSG integration into foodstuff for human consumption and animal feed supplements. BSG is considered a rich source of fiber, protein, and phenolic compounds. The phenolic acids present in BSG are hydroxycinnamic acids (ferulic, p-coumaric, and caffeic acids), which have many biofunctions, such as antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, antiatherogenic, and antiinflammatory activities. Previously, attempts have been made to integrate BSG into human food, such as ready-to-eat snacks, cookies and bread, to increase fiber and protein contents. The addition of BSG to animal feed leads to increased milk yields, higher fat contents in milk, and is a good source of essential amino acids. Therefore, many studies have concluded that integrating the biofunctional compounds in BSG into human food and animal feed has various health benefits.

The seeds or grain of lupins, a cool climate legume, are a rich source of protein and energy. They could prove a valuable alternative to soybean and dry peas for both human foods and animal feeds. One advantage would be that lupins have a lower content of antinutritional factors, particularly the protease inhibitors and lectins. Lupins are a good substrate for fermentation and can be used to make tempe and traditional fermented foods for Japan, Korea and China. Lupin flour can be added to wheat flour to make high protein breads, cakes and pas¬tas of higher nutritional value. Lupins can also be pro¬cessed to make a protein concentrate, and a dietary fi¬bre fraction with excellent water-holding capacity. Lupins have been shown to be a useful ingredient in the diets of fish and crustaceans, pigs, poultry and dairy and beef cattle. Much work to adapt its use for Indone¬sian conditions will be needed before the respective in¬dustries can fully benefit from this new commodity