The Gig Economy and All That

The informal sector is a major component of the global economy and accounts for a large percentage of the workforce, especially in the Global South. Additionally, the emerging gig economy is becoming an increasing source of income for many people throughout the world. Due to the nature of the gig economy as largely contracted work facilitated through virtual (often remote) platforms, it is clear that there are already some impacts, which will likely continue to evolve on the workforce of the informal economy. In the tourism context, issues around employment are of the utmost importance due to the growth of job opportunities in the sector, particularly in emerging economies with high un- and underemployment rates. As a sector that is notorious for poor working conditions, there has been some discussion on how the emerging gig economy could potentially facilitate the formalisation of precarious and informal tourism employment. Thus, this chapter seeks to explore these issues. It begins with an overview of employment within both the gig and informal economies focusing on the context of the Southern African tourism sector. It then seeks to provide a critical assessment of tourism employment within the gig economy and its links to the informal tourism workforce in the hopes of promoting future research on these increasingly significant issues.

The gig economy's explosive growth has created flexible, platform-based entrepreneurial opportunities that have drastically changed the global employment landscape. The role of gig work in promoting entrepreneurship is examined in this study, "The Gig Economy as a Sustainable Entrepreneurial Pathway – A Study on Zomato Ltd." It focuses on the advantages, difficulties, and long-term sustainability of gig work for workers in India's digital labor market. In order to obtain thorough insights, the study uses a mixed-method research design that combines quantitative and qualitative techniques. A structured questionnaire was used to gather primary data from 50 Zomato delivery partners in major Indian cities. Secondary data came from academic publications, business reports, and policy documents, such as India's Booming Gig and Platform Economy (2022) by NITI Aayog. The association between work flexibility, job satisfaction, and entrepreneurial intention was evaluated using statistical techniques like regression analysis and correlation. The results show that the main factors boosting gig workers' entrepreneurial mindset are flexibility, autonomy, and income potential. But issues like unstable income, no social security, and little opportunity for career advancement still exist. Gig work may be a route to self-employment if it is facilitated by strong institutional and organizational frameworks, according to a positive correlation between job satisfaction and entrepreneurial intent. To ensure sustainable gig entrepreneurship, the study suggests bolstering social protection, welfare, and skill development programs

The term gig economy came in vogue during 2009 financial crisis. It reached its vortex with the outbreak of corona pandemic. Recently several literature, articles and report have projected Gig economy as an effective answer to gigantic problem of unemployment in several countries of the world. This present study on Gig Economy aims to define gig economy, discuss its unique features highlighting the relevance of growth of Gig economy in state of Bihar in creation of employment opportunities and to which extent it is justified. The present study throws light on the differences existing in work culture of gig workers, self-employed workers, organised sector workers and unorganised sector workers. As a generator of large employment opportunities distinctive features of gig economy have been analysed juxtaposed to the problems and hurdles faced by women in Bihar while entering the gig economy. The prime concern today is why this new category of workers emerged known as gig workers. The answer lies in changing needs of the human being, changing environment propounded by corona pandemic and technological advancement. The United States is the largest labour market for gig workers. The digitalisation and outbreak of corona pandemic accelerated the gigification of large economies. The present study uses primary and secondary data to corroborate whether gig economy is capable of creating employment opportunities in Bihar or especially for women. With the above objective in mind the research is based on field work, conducted through survey questionnaire of around 200 respondents in different location from 5 districts of Bihar. The questions were formulated to capture and assess the socio-economic background of respondents, penetration of digital tools and digital awareness. Questions were structured to obtain information regarding monthly income, ownership of mobile phone smartphone or feature phone, access to Internet service, knowledge of operating mobile banking to reach to correct conclusions.The article also suggests few corrective measures to overcome difficulties faced by women in Bihar. To avail benefits of gig economy Bihar needs to work on basic parameters of illiteracy, digital literacy, change in orthodox thinking especially towards women and thus bridging the rural urban gap and at the same time measures should be taken for building financial and credit facilities. Benefit of the new gig economy can only be harnessed when there is change in traditional mindset of Bihar and expansion of internet users in Bihar. Not only number of internet users are lowest in Bihar but there is large digital gender gap too. Gig economy can become a source of increasing livelihood if the working population is digitally literate. In Bihar 76% of population is still engaged in agriculture. However the job creating sectors or opportunities offered by gig economy as discussed require skills that are more suited to urban areas . Job opportunities offered or created by gig economy require that minimum level of literacy which is not suitable foe workforce in Bihar as we know that Bihar has lowest female literacy and Bihar doesn't rank high in male literacy too.A more conscious, streamlined and targeted effort by leaders and population of Bihar can only help women to harness the benefits of gig economy and take women on the path of economic prosperity.

In this paper, the authors analyze the advantages and limitations of freelancing in four countries of Western Balkan. This work is based on the research with a total sample of 1031 respondents; 408 respondents from Serbia, 201 from Montenegro, 221 from North Macedonia, and 201 from Bosnia and Herzegovina. For the needs of the research, a special questionnaire was constructed and conducted by an electronic survey. The first goal of the research is to describe the functioning of freelancers in four countries, and the second is to describe the similarities and differences between countries of Western Balkan. In general, freelancers in all four countries have positive attitudes towards freelancing, although there are differences between them. Freelancers are especially satisfied with their income, and in Bosnia and Herzegovina with flexible working hours. No statistically significant differences were found among freelancers from four countries of Western Balkan in the structure of jobs they have worked in the last two years, nor in the assessment of the positive effects of new technologies on new forms of employment. They do not differ either in understanding that the work in the "Gig Economy" had less negative than positive effects on their private lives and in the fact that there are no differences in the assessment of the positive effects of freelance on the quality of life. They are no differences in terms of the proposed measures to improve the position of workers in the "Gig Economy". Unfortunately, there are also no differences in basic social rights (lack of health, disability, and pension insurance). The most significant differences have been noted between freelancers from Montenegro and freelancers from the other three countries. Freelancers from Montenegro see less positive contributions working in the "Gig Economy" than others, and they significantly more often believe that the "Gig Economy" can’t reduce unemployment and prevent brain drain abroad. The authors explain the negative attitudes of freelancers from Montenegro towards their work in the "Gig Economy" with the lower prevalence of freelancers, poorer job structure, and lower income with an unfavorable socioeconomic status.

By taking an historical perspective, and by drawing on our own empirical work from the UK in the 1980s and more recently, we argue three main things. First, we need to understand the particular conditions of ‘the gig economy’ as a concentrated form of a more general de-standardisation of employment that has brought multiple forms of insecure work. Second, although there is clamour and excitement about ‘the gig economy’ in fact it shares strong parallels with earlier forms of insecure enterprise. Third, while not uniform nor as yet fully empirically demonstrated, young adults’ encounters with the ‘gig economy’ and other aspects of the contemporary labour market (such as the ‘low-pay, no-pay’ cycle, self-employment, ‘zero-hours contracts’) appear to be typified by a lack of choice and control, and experiences of disempowerment, low pay, degraded work conditions, alienation, anxiety and insecurity. This stands at odds with more celebratory proclamations about ‘the gig economy’.

PurposeThis study reviews the literature on shadow and gig economy models to highlight their effects on entrepreneurship and business development in emerging markets. In particular, it examines how these models create opportunities for income generation and employment while operating outside formal regulatory frameworks and also assesses the regulatory and socio-economic factors that influence their success.Design/methodology/approachUsing a systematic literature review (SLR) following the PRISMA protocol, 33 relevant and impactful articles published between 2000 and 2024 were analysed. The study synthesises findings on shadow and gig economy practices to answer key research questions about their role in fostering entrepreneurship and innovation.FindingsThe results reveal three key findings. First, the models of the gig and shadow economies encourage economic participation and entrepreneurial innovation, especially among underrepresented groups, but they also present difficulties like job insecurity and unofficial working conditions. The success of these models is also greatly influenced by socio-economic and regulatory factors, with adaptive frameworks enhancing worker protection and innovation. Third, measures like collective efforts, investments in digital infrastructure and flexible regulations are essential for both economic models to grow sustainably.Practical implicationsPolicymakers and stakeholders should create clear regulatory frameworks that protect workers’ rights while promoting business innovation. Investments in technology, digital infrastructure and inclusive skills development can improve participation and productivity. Collaborative initiatives are critical for mitigating risks and ensuring ethical practices in the shadow and gig economies.Originality/valueUnlike previous conceptual and theoretical studies, this study offers new perspectives through a clear conceptual framework that explains the dual role in entrepreneurship and business development. It also provides useful information for scholars and policymakers in emerging markets.

Industry experts estimate that there could be over 15 million gig economy workers in India. Despite its massive potential, India’s gig economy is still at a very nascent stage. Due to the recent pandemic, many companies were forced to trim staff and hire gig workers due to uncertain market conditions. This has dispelled many reservations about the dependability and long-term viability of a gig workforce. India can emerge as one of the largest markets for flexible staffing globally. It is therefore apt that a research article traces the Indian gig economy and draws valid inferences for the human resource (HR) function. The objective of this article is to review and synthesise themes and narratives around gig economy from the perspective of people’s function. The study analyses the concepts in two phases. In phase I, we summarise the key concepts from academic research. We, further, extract the opinions of business professionals; in phase II, using text mining techniques in SPSS Modeler Text of qualitative data discussed in the Indian context is used to come up with the gig economy narrative in India. This inductive research draws inferences from secondary data available in newspapers, magazines, blogs, research journals and comments posted on social media like LinkedIn and Twitter. The findings of this article reveal how gig economy has shaped the employer–employee relationship. While doing so, we present the opportunities and challenges for the gig workers, the influence of the pandemic in fuelling the gig economy and perception of the organisations. There is more positive sentiment and optimism around the gig economy in India. The role of the managers will transform in this model, and functions like learning and development and performance management will undergo vital changes. Creating a sense of inclusion and belongingness among the gig workers will become a priority. Therefore, to become a stable employment model, there is a need to create a robust gig ecosystem where expectations of all the important stakeholders are understood and met. Implication: The union budget 2021–2022 for the first time acknowledged the gig economy and announced social security benefits for the gig workers. It is time for HR and policymakers to redesign policies and processes that will not just accommodate gig workers into the formal employment but also foster inclusion. The exhaustive review of literature provides a holistic picture of gig economy to scholars interested in the field of gig economy, psychological contract, and diversity and inclusion. Practitioners can use insights from this research study to manage, engage and retain their gig talent.

Purpose Although it is transforming the meaning of employment for many people, little is known about the implications of the gig economy for human resource management (HRM) theory and practice. The purpose of this paper is to conceptually explore the notion of HRM in the gig economy, where intermediary platform firms design and implement HRM activities while simultaneously trying to avoid the establishment of employment relationships with gig workers. Design/methodology/approach To conceptualize HRM in the gig economy, the authors offer a novel ecosystem perspective to develop propositions on the role and implementation of HRM activities in the gig economy. Findings The authors show that HRM activities in the gig economy are designed to govern platform ecosystems by aligning the multilateral exchanges of three key gig economy actors: gig workers, requesters and intermediary platform firms, for ensuring value co-creation. The authors argue that the implementation of HRM activities in the gig economy is contingent on the involvement and activities of these gig economy actors. This means that they are not mere recipients of HRM but also actively engaged in, and needed for, the execution of HRM activities. Originality/value The study contributes to research by proposing a theoretical framework for studying the design of HRM activities, and their implementation, in the gig economy. From this framework, the authors derive directions for future research on HRM in the gig economy.

Risk Shifts in the Gig Economy: The Normative Case for an Insurance Scheme against the Effects of Precarious Work*

The rapid ascent of digital platforms and the gig economy has prompted concerns about the gender pay gap. The results show that in the gig economy, gender continues to be a crucial determinant of workers’ earnings, with women earning 85% of what men earn on a monthly basis. Nevertheless, in comparison to the traditional waged employment during the same period, the gender pay gap in the gig economy has narrowed. While some gig jobs (e.g., ride-hailing services, delivery services, online education) exhibit certain occupational segregation, women in gig economy work are no longer concentrated in low-paying roles, thereby challenging the occupational crowding hypothesis prevalent in traditional employment. In the gig economy, the vast majority of the gender pay gaps arise from factors within occupations, and occupational segregation only has a very limited impact on the earnings gap. Additionally, the gender pay gap among platform gig workers can be mostly explained by observable factors, which implies that compared to traditional employment, the gig economy exhibits a lower level of implicit gender discrimination in China. Finally, we investigate new factors that determine the gender pay gap in the gig economy. Women exhibit a stronger aversion to algorithmic control, a preference for job flexibility, and a tendency toward more isolated and less socially interactive work environments—all of which serve to widen the gender pay gap that might have otherwise narrowed. The results of this research suggest that despite the criticisms surrounding the gig economy, it continues to exert a positive influence on China’s labor market.

Under the situation of industrial transformation and stable employment, gig economy has gradually become a new economic phenomenon and attracted widespread attention, but there are few studies on the formation mechanism of gig economy and its influence. Based on the Data of China Labor-force Dynamic Survey（CLDS）in 2014 and 2016 and the Peking University Digital Financial Inclusion Index, this paper empirically analyzes the relationship between city size, development of digital financial inclusion, and gig economy. The results show that: （1）City size is the physical basis of gig economy, that is, population agglomeration and supply-demand matching efficiency in big cities are more conducive to the emergence and development of gig economy.（2）The development of digital financial inclusion provides an important guarantee for gig economy, and the expansion of the availability and coverage of financial services promotes the further development of gig economy. In addition, the rise of gig economy will bring positive externalities to cities and become the new driving force of urban development. Similar to the sharing economy, urban agglomeration economy provides the growth environment and possibility for the emergence of gig economy, while digital financial inclusion provides technical support and diffusion foundation for the development of gig economy.Under the impact of COVID-19 epidemic, the employment of the real economy is generally affected, and gig economy, characterized by flexible employment forms, abundant employment channels and low employment threshold, has become an important channel to stabilize the employment situation and maintain steady economic growth. In this context, it is of certain theoretical and practical significance to study the generation and development of gig economy from the perspective of city size and digital financial inclusion. Therefore, in order to promote the healthy development of urban gig economy, this paper proposes the following policies: On the one hand, based on the positive impact of city size on gig economy, we should pay attention to the positive influence brought by urban population agglomeration when promoting the development of new economy, new industry and new format; on the other hand, considering that gig economy has a large space for development, the government should actively encourage this emerging economic form, grasp the opportunities brought by technological innovation such as the internet platform, and pay attention to the construction of financial infrastructure services in cities to provide necessary guarantees for the development of gig economy.

The world of work is changing rapidly, and concerns abound that ‘non-standard’ forms of work are challenging the social and collective dimension of work. In particular, the rapid growth of the ‘gig economy’ has brought these concerns to the forefront of the debate. For trade unions, the growth in non-standard work has long been considered problematic. However, the high degree of individualisation and lack of human contact characterising the gig economy raise profound questions about how trade unions should both organise, and represent, workers in this ‘sector’ at a time when trade union membership is in decline and there is a continuing lack of legislative support for collective bargaining. Much of the debate in the existing literature takes as its point of departure, the ‘standard’ (male) worker, and sees the rise in ‘non-standard’ work and work in the gig economy as a threat to this model. This is despite the fact that trade unions have been challenged by ‘non-standard’ work since their inception: the non-standard arrangements, which have now entered the mainstream, have long been the norm for many women workers. Yet historically, within the labour law and industrial relations literature, women and gender have rarely been the subject of discussion, although this has changed since the 1980s. In addition, much of the British literature examining the novelty of the gig economy has focussed on the scope and ability of labour law to respond to these work arrangements, and there has been less engagement with trade union responses to these ‘new’ forms of work, even though the growth in such work also creates pressure for changes in the institutions that regulate labour markets. Against this background, and in light of this book’s overarching theme, this chapter calls for a new research agenda that considers the challenges of non-standard work, and of work in the gig economy, for trade unions within the context of the ‘feminisation of work’. The geographical focus of this chapter, in this regard, is the UK. The chapter argues that trade unions are struggling to shake off their image as the representatives of white, working-class, and blue-collar men. As a result, many of the successful efforts at organising non-standard workers, including workers in the gig economy, have been undertaken by ‘non-traditional’ trade unions (and other forms of grassroots organisations). This raises the question as to whether ‘traditional’ trade unions are able to effectively respond to the rise of non-standard forms of work, and to the gig economy in particular. It is suggested that part of the difficulty for these trade unions lies in the way in which they prioritise the functions that they adopt within the labour market, and the labour law system; functions which are based on a gendered understanding of the labour market, and which in turn hamper trade union efforts to reach out to an increasingly feminised labour force. The chapter therefore suggests that a conscious conceptual shift should take place, when thinking about the purpose of trade unions, if these organisations are to respond effectively to the feminisation of work.

Purpose This study examines how gig economy participation drives startup innovation, especially in resource-constrained settings. Design/methodology/approach Drawing on job characteristics theory (JCT), resource-based view (RBV) and upper echelons theory (UET), this study integrates multi-level perspectives to explain how gig economy participation fosters startup innovation. Empirical insights are derived from data on 5,727 entrepreneurs from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM). Findings Results show that gig economy participation significantly enhances innovation, particularly in emerging economies. These insights guide entrepreneurs and policymakers in leveraging the gig economy to drive innovation. Research limitations/implications Our findings confirm a significant positive relationship between entrepreneurial participation in the gig economy and startup innovation performance. This not only supports but extends prior work by conceptualizing the gig economy as a strategic resource within the resource-based view (RBV) of the firm. In doing so, the study contributes to a paradigm shift in understanding how startups mobilize and exploit external resources in digitally mediated environments. By redefining gig work as an innovation-enabling input rather than a labor cost alternative, this research advances theoretical conversations around entrepreneurial resource orchestration in the digital era. Practical implications For practitioners, this study underscores the strategic value of engaging with the gig economy to enhance innovation. Entrepreneurs and startup leaders are encouraged to integrate gig-based labor not only for operational flexibility but also as a source of specialized skills and rapid iteration. Importantly, psychological traits such as entrepreneurial self-efficacy must be managed to ensure optimal use of external resources. Furthermore, firms should consider aligning gig work structures with the principles of job characteristics theory (JCT), emphasizing autonomy, task identity and skill variety. Doing so can improve performance, foster creativity and enhance both participant development and organizational innovation outcomes. Social implications For policymakers and regulatory bodies, our findings highlight the gig economy’s potential to strengthen entrepreneurial ecosystems, particularly in underdeveloped and emerging economies where formal resource channels are limited. A supportive and inclusive gig economy infrastructure – guided by oversight from government and industry associations – can improve worker satisfaction, create meaningful employment opportunities, and promote inclusive national development. Effective policy must therefore strike a balance between enabling innovation and safeguarding fair labor standards, ensuring that gig platforms contribute not only to entrepreneurial performance but also to social equity and economic resilience. Originality/value The study clarifies how individual and institutional factors shape the gig–innovation link and provides strategic recommendations to maximize gig economy benefits, particularly across emerging markets, thus offering actionable insights for entrepreneurs, policymakers and platform designers.

Introduction: This paper investigates the international relationship between digitalization, the gig economy, and low carbon development, providing valuable insights for governments and stakeholders seeking to advance sustainable development and a low-carbon society.Methods: A large dataset comprising countries with varying degrees of digitalization and gig economy prevalence was analyzed to assess the impact of digitalization on the gig economy and its subsequent effects on greenhouse gas emissions.Results: The study reveals that the impact of digitalization on the gig economy varies by income level, exhibiting a positive relationship in high-income countries and a negative relationship in low-income countries. Furthermore, the gig economy demonstrates a significant negative impact on greenhouse gas emissions, particularly CO2 emissions, indicating that its growth may support emissions reduction and facilitate the transition to a low-carbon society. The gig economy also mediates the connection between digitalization and low-carbon development.Discussion: These findings carry substantial policy implications for governments and stakeholders working towards sustainable development and a low-carbon society. Moreover, the study highlights potential areas for future research, such as investigating the heterogeneous effects across income levels, exploring sectoral differences in the gig economy, and examining the dynamic nature of the gig economy and digitalization.

The recent emergence of gig economy facilitates the exchange of skilled labor by allowing workers to showcase and sell their skills to a global market. Despite the recent effort on thoroughly examining who workers in the gig economy are and what their experience in the gig economy are like, our knowledge on how exactly do workers provide their skills in gig economy, and how worker's strategies on skill provision and expansion relate to their success in gig economy is still lacking. In this paper, we conduct a case study on a prominent gig economy platform, Fiverr.com, to better understand the provision of skills on it through large-scale, data-driven analysis. In particular, we propose the concept of "skill space" from a network perspective to characterize the relationship between different skills by measuring how frequently workers provide different skills together. Through our analysis, we reveal interesting patterns in worker's provision of skills on Fiverr. We then show how these patterns change over time and differ across subgroups of workers with different characteristics. In addition, we find that providing a set of skills that are highly related with each other correlates with a better overall performance in gig economy, and when workers expand their skillsets, expanding to a new skill that is highly-related to the existing skills takes less time and is associated with better performance on the new skill. We conclude by discussing the implications of our findings for gig economy workers and platform in general.