The Function of Eponymous Terms in Modern Latin Medical Terminology and Their Reflection on the Bulgarian System

There are approximately 20,000 medical eponymous terms in use today. Familiar eponymous terms serve as shorthand during communication with colleagues. This study tested the reliability of the everyday use of common orthopaedic eponymous terms. Using an online survey, 224 orthopaedic surgeons were quizzed on common eponymous terms. The correspondence of each eponymous term with its original description (termed appropriate use) was calculated with 95% confidence intervals. We measured the reliability of the use of eponymous terms using the kappa statistic and the proportion of agreement. The percentage of appropriate use averaged 45% (ranging from 27% [for the Barton fracture eponymous term] to 75% [for the Sever's disease eponymous term]), with greater misuse among European surgeons. The reliability of the use of eponymous terms was low (kappa, 0.11; proportion of agreement, 68%). The support for using eponymous terms in daily practice was significantly lower among surgeons practicing in North America (63%) than among their colleagues in Europe and South America (80%; p < 0.001). Eponymous terms were used more often than anatomical descriptions or classifications. Using eponymous terms is an inaccurate and unreliable method of communication. Descriptive terms are preferable to eponymous terms.

Students frequently turn to the internet for information about a range of scientific issues. However, they can find it challenging to evaluate the credibility of the information they find, which may increase their susceptibility to mis‐ and disinformation. This exploratory study reports findings from an instructional intervention designed to teach high school students to engage in scientific online reasoning (SOR), a set of competencies for evaluating sources of scientific information on the internet. Forty‐three ninth grade students participated in eleven instructional activities. They completed pre and post constructed response tasks designed to assess three constructs: evaluating conflicts of interest, relevant scientific expertise, and alignment with scientific consensus. A subset of students (n = 6) also completed pre and post think‐aloud tasks where they evaluated websites of varying credibility. Students' written responses and screen‐capture recordings were scored, coded, and analyzed using a mixed‐methods approach. Findings from the study demonstrate that after the intervention: (1) students' assessment scores improved significantly on all three tasks, (2) students improved in their ability to distinguish between sources of online scientific information of varying credibility, and (3) more students used online reasoning strategies and outside sources of information. Areas for student growth are also identified, such as improving coordinated use of credibility criteria with online reasoning strategies. These results suggest that teaching criteria for the credibility of scientific information, along with online reasoning strategies, has the potential to help students evaluate scientific information encountered on the internet.

Public trust in science and expertise remains a contentious issue. When public trust is analysed, it often simplifies a complex process of information retrieval and interpretation. Questionnaire surveys help us make sense of differences among actors and countries, but they fail to provide a comprehensive analysis of the reasons that lead citizens to trust a specific actor to differing degrees. Hence, we opted for using a qualitative grounded approach to understand how citizens make sense of their trust in several actors. This article draws from the results of public consultations with citizens in Portugal and Poland about two specific science-related topics—climate change and vaccines—focusing on citizens’ perceptions of trust in several sources of scientific information. The results show that citizens’ trust varies depending on the source of scientific information, and it is affected by the topic’s visibility and different national levels of institutional trust. It also concludes that citizens use different criteria to evaluate trustworthiness and that this process leads to different ways of expressing trust/mistrust: unquestioned confidence, justified trust, reflexive trust, and active distrust. Such knowledge leads to a more in depth understanding of how trust in science is constructed, which can help science communicators and educators choose sources and materials.

gender bias, anatomical terms: This tweet by Kirsten Small, MBBS, PhD, a specialist obstetrician and gynecologist at Griffith University in South East Queensland, Australia, prompted this article by Drs. Buttner, Lee, and Cadogan.FigureFigureFigureAfter a recent Twitter debate, we set out to evaluate the hypothesis that there is always an alternative to a dead man's name for body parts and to create an online searchable database (https://bit.ly/Eponymictionary) to facilitate the de-eponymization of anatomic terminology. We reviewed 700 normal (nonpathological) anatomical and histological eponyms, and developed a searchable database modelled on the 2019 edition of Terminologia Anatomica (TA2) published by the Federative International Programme for Anatomical Terminology (FIPAT). (https://fipat.library.dal.ca/.) We found myriad inconsistencies, confusion, misogyny, inaccuracy, and issues pertaining to the use of anatomical eponyms in modern medical parlance. In the vast majority of cases, an internationally recognized, non-person-oriented, officially sanctioned term could be used to replace an eponym without detriment to context or education. The use of eponyms in medicine has been commonplace for centuries, and an ongoing debate continues about the accuracy, effectiveness, and more recently, the cultural appropriateness of their use in anatomical terminology. The majority of these eponyms have an approved and accepted modern terminology, but many clinicians continue to utilize and teach eponymous terms in their daily practice. Definitions and History We used these definitions in this review: Eponym: Person after whom the anatomical entity is named, e.g., Colles. Eponymous term: The anatomical entity named, e.g., Colles fascia. Synonymy: Multiple alternate names for a single entity. Polysemy: Multiple alternate meanings for a single term. Atomische Gesellschaft, the German language anatomical society, attempted in 1887 to address the problem of multiple names per anatomical structure. Wilhelm His, et al., defined the first rule of Anatomy Club, that each anatomical structure should only have one name. The first edition of Nomina Anatomica managed to break this rule more than 200 times, and consolidated the use of 165 eponymous terms. (1895; https://bit.ly/3iWnp2Z.) The number of eponymous terms and breaches of the one-name rule increased in frequency in subsequent editions. Each part to be named should only have one name. The names must be correct in Latin and linguistically. They are also required to be as short and simple as possible. The names are intended to be mere reminders and not to claim descriptions or speculative interpretations. Names that belong together should be composed as similarly as possible (e.g., femur, femoral artery, femoral vein, femoral nerve). (Nomina Anatomica. 1895:16.) The use of personal names in anatomical terms has been a contentious point of debate and delicate accommodation over the past century. Eponyms have generally been prohibited but deemed tolerable when necessary. A common compromise was to append personal names to the official Latin term: Calot's triangle as trigonum cystohepaticum (Caloti). The Federative International Programme for Anatomical Terminology determined in 2015 that the Latin term (official term) may have associated synonyms or related terms, and that terms in other languages should be classified as equivalent terms, synonyms, or related terms. The 2019 editions of Terminologia Anatomica (TA2; https://bit.ly/30aCjtQ), Terminologia Neuroanatomica (TNA; https://bit.ly/38UW0d2), and Terminologia Embryologica (TE2; https://bit.ly/3j12LyD) list eponyms as related terms. This moves the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists one step closer to global consensus and de-eponymization. Eponymous anatomical, histological, and embryological terms, their author, and their anatomical descriptor were reviewed from textbook and online sources. (Full reference list: https://bit.ly/3j0EJUw.) Only nonpathological anatomic and histologic terms with a related eponym and documented in either Nomina Anatomica, TA2, TNA, or TE2 were highlighted for review. Eponymous terms relating to signs, syndromes, topographical landmarks, and clinical anatomical areas were excluded from further evaluation. Results were compiled in an online database allowing review of the eponymous term, the official Latin term, synonyms, English term, and related terms. The original publication (bibliographic source), as well as the country, occupation, and date of birth/death of the author (biographic source) were recorded. Results We identified 700 nonpathological anatomical eponymous terms attributed to 432 different eponyms. A total of 424 eponyms were male physicians. The eight non-male physician eponyms included five gods, a king, a hero, and one woman. Thirty nationalities were represented, but 57 percent of eponyms originated from just three countries: Germany (194 eponymous terms, 114 eponyms), France (105/67), and Italy (104/41). The average date of eponymous term attribution was 1847, with 51 percent of eponymous physicians being born between 1800 and 1875. A total of 117 authors were associated with more than one eponymous term. The most attributed authors accounted for seven percent of eponymous terms: Morgagni (15), Santori (10), Haller (9), Golgi (8), and Jacobson (8). Misogyny and Myths Eponyms are dead; long live the eponym! There are reasons we are probably unable to say that there is always an alternative to a dead man's name for body parts. Eponymic misogyny, for one. One woman did make the list. The only human woman eponymously affiliated with a macroscopic anatomical structure was Raissa Nitabuch (Nitabuch fibrinoid or Stria fibrinoidea interna, the internal fibrinoid layer of the maturing placenta). The first woman to graduate from medical school was Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910) in 1849. (Life in the Fast Lane; July 13, 2020; https://bit.ly/2DAMmRn.) Given that the lead time to eponymic attribution was 28.5 years and the average date of attribution was 1847, it is not unsurprising that more than 90 percent of the anatomical eponyms had already been designated by the time women graduates were eligible for attribution. A number of anatomical terms relate to historical and mythical figures. Some have entered the vernacular more as metaphors and mythonyms than true anatomical eponyms. Examples include: Ancient Greece: Iris, Atlas, Achilles, Hymenios (hymen) Ancient Egypt: Amun (Ammon's horn) Ancient Rome: Venus (mons veneris) Biblical: King David (David's lyre), Adam (Adam's apple) At the risk of causing more controversy, the mythological (now anatomically and histologically defined) Gräfenberg spot has been included in the database in its shortened colloquial version, the G-spot. (BJOG. 2014;121[11]:1333; https://bit.ly/2CAvDgo.) The eponym is there; you just can't see it any more. Latin, Latin, and More Latin When is an eponym not an eponym? When it is written in Latin, of course. Where a suitable structural term is not available, an adjectival eponym may be used if a personal name has been internationally accepted, despite the desirability of avoiding eponyms.—Nomina Histologica. 1977. Golgi (golgiensis), Paneth (panethensis), and Purkinje (purkinjense) are included in Terminologia Histologica (TH) as adjectives. Examples include: Camillo Golgi (1843-1926): Apparatus golgiensis (Golgi apparatus) Joseph Paneth (1857-1890): Cellula panethensis (Paneth cell) Johannes Purkinje (1787-1869): Stratum purkinjense (Purkinje cell layer) Theodor Schwann (1810-1882): Schwannocytus (Schwann cell). Schwannocytus was added as a compound word in 2008. The term Schwann cell is now almost universally ascribed to the PNS ensheathing cell. Terms including the stem neurolemma are now rarely used. Eponymic Polysemy Despite this minor semantic diversion, we believe that eponyms relating to anatomical nomenclature should be abolished. Eponyms often enter the medical vocabulary in a haphazard and chaotic manner. It is not uncommon for them to break Neuman's eighth rule of anatomical nomenclature that each name must be unique. (Clin Anat. 2017 Apr;30[3]:300.) Multiple anatomical terms may be referred to by a single eponym (polysemy), such as Müller's muscle. Related terms in TA2 include the fibrae circulares (ciliary circular fibers), the musculus orbitalis (orbitalis muscle), and the musculus tarsalis superior (superior tarsal muscle). Eponyms as Synonyms The medical literature is filled with a dissonant array of eponyms scattered throughout the timeline of descriptive terminology. Unsurprisingly, this has resulted in multiple separate eponyms being promoted to describe the same anatomical structure. For example, the ileal orifice (ileocecal valve) is most commonly termed Bauhin's valve, but also the valve of Tulp, Macalister, Falloppio, Morgagni, or Varolio. Nodules of the semilunar leaflets of the aortic valve have the eponymic synonyms of the bodies of Arantius, nodules of Morgagni, and the nodules of Valsalva.Table: Eponyms from the EponymictionaryVernacular Duality Eponyms can differ from country to country. The ligamentum iliofemorale (iliofemoral ligament) is known as Bertin's ligament in French and Bigelow's ligament in English. Similarly, the nodus inguinalis profundus proximalis (proximal deep inguinal lymph node) is referred to as Cloquet's ganglion/node in French and English and the Rosenmüller-Lymphknoten in German. Mireille Cavalerie introduced the term éponymes confusionnants in 1990 to describe the eponymic confusion relating to symmetrical organs sharing a common function. Stensen's and Wharton's ducts, for example, are both devoid of clues to indicate which belongs to the parotid gland and which to the submandibular gland. Tainted Eponyms Concerns were raised about using eponyms following World War II when it was revealed that some anatomical eponyms and their discovery were directly connected with active members of the Nazi party. The bronchiolar exocrine cell (exocrinocytus bronchiolaris or club cell) was originally named the Clara cell after Max Clara (1899-1965), an active supporter of Hitler's party. Clara acknowledged in his 1937 paper that the sample he based his work on was obtained from a prisoner executed by the Nazis. Eduard Pernkopf (1888-1955) published his amazingly detailed, and “beautifully” illustrated Pernkopf Atlas of Human Anatomy in 1964, and it possibly included research and prosections conducted on executed civilians. (https://bit.ly/2Opak44.) After Hitler invaded Austria in 1938, Pernkopf was appointed dean of the medical school at the University of Vienna and was a major instigator in purging Jewish staff from the medical school (153 of its 197 members). He voiced support for euthanasia and the Holocaust that was yet to come in several public speeches. The illustrators of the atlas were active Nazi party members who incorporated small swastikas and SS insignia into their signatures (airbrushed out in later editions). Namesakes and Dynasties Eponymous terms usually relate to the surname of the attributed physician. Confusion arises when two eponyms have the same surname, more still when the namesakes are related and share the same given names. Wilhelm His Sr. (1831-1904) described the angle of His (cardiac notch) in 1868, and his son Wilhelm His Jr. (1863-1934) described the bundle of His (atrioventricular bundle) in 1893. Johann Friedrich Meckel (1724-1774) described Meckel's ganglion (ganglion pterygopalatinum) in 1749, and his grandson Johann Friedrich Meckel (the younger) (1781-1833) described the Meckel diverticulum (diverticulum ilei) in 1809. Ghost Eponyms Orly coined the term bibliographical ghosts in 2014 in reference to eponymous publications which, though mentioned by historians, appear to have never existed. Some eponymous terms refer to prominent physicians with no recorded evidence of description or discovery. The dorsal tubercle of radius, for example, is eponymously remembered as Lister's tubercle after British surgeon Sir Joseph Lister (1827-1912), though no evidence exists that he ever described it. Others list little or no biographical information about the author, such as Johann Ehrenritter for the ganglion of Ehrenritter (1790); Karl Friedrich Ludwig Gantzer for Gantzer's muscle (1813), Onésime Lecomte for Lecomte's pronator of ulna (1863); Raissa Nitabuch for the Nitabuch membrane (1877); Christian Friedrich Wilhelm Roller (1802-1878 or 1844-1884) for Roller's nucleus (1881); Hugo Schütz for the fasciculus of Schütz (1891), and V Bernasconi for the artery of Bernasconi and Cassinari (1957). This article was originally published in the blog Life in the Fast Lane (https://litfl.com), created by Mike Cadogan, FACEM, FFSEM, and Chris Nickson, FCICM, FACEM, and is reprinted with permission. Dr. Buttneris an emergency medicine trainee at Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital in Perth, Western Australia, and an author for the blog Life in the Fast Lane. Follow him on Twitter@ButtnerRob. Dr. Leeis a UK-trained physician currently working in emergency medicine in Perth, Western Australia, and an author for Life in the Fast Lane. Dr. Cadoganis an emergency physician at Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital in Perth, Western Australia, and a founder of the Life in the Fast Lane blog. Follow him on Twitter@sandnsurf.

Rooted in science education and science communication studies, this study examines 4th and 5th grade students’ perceptions of science information sources (SIS) and their use in communicating science to students. It combines situated learning theory with uses and gratifications theory in a qualitative phenomenological analysis. Data were gathered through classroom observations and interviews in four Turkish elementary schools. Focus group interviews with 47 students and individual interviews with 17 teachers and 10 parents were conducted. Participants identified a wide range of SIS, including TV, magazines, newspapers, internet, peers, teachers, families, science centers/museums, science exhibitions, textbooks, science books, and science camps. Students reported using various SIS in school-based and non-school contexts to satisfy their cognitive, affective, personal, and social integrative needs. SIS were used for science courses, homework/project assignments, examination/test preparations, and individual science-related research. Students assessed SIS in terms of the perceived accessibility of the sources, the quality of the content, and the content presentation. In particular, some sources such as teachers, families, TV, science magazines, textbooks, and science centers/museums (“directive sources”) predictably led students to other sources such as teachers, families, internet, and science books (“directed sources”). A small number of sources crossed context boundaries, being useful in both school and out. Results shed light on the connection between science education and science communication in terms of promoting science learning.

It is well known fact that in the domain of morphological sciences, e. g. human anatomy, clinical, topographical and pathological anatomy, histology, embryology, cytology, etc., eponymous terms are very common and have been being used for a long time. Eponymous terms are used to cover a wide variety of anatomical structures ranging from the most important to a less important in clinical practice. Eponyms in medical terminology in some cases result in the use of two or more synonyms for the same concept and therefore, there seems to be reasonable to replace some eponymous terms with somewhat descriptive terms. This work was aimed at studying eponymous terms for human skull syndromes in anatomical terminology related to the human skull by reviewing relevant literature. The research methodology includes generally accepted scientific methods: dialectical, historical and chronological, bibliographical and descriptive ones. Nowadays, eponymous terms in the domain of human anatomy are an inseparable part of academic and didactic texts (monographs, students’ textbooks, research articles, etc.) and, as they are shorter than their non-eponymous variants, they may provide the texts with laconism. The eponyms studied are valuable in the reconstruction of the origin of a concept. The use of eponyms in medical terminology has been more frequent than in other domains, which has in some cases resulted in the use of two or more synonyms for the same concept. The use of eponyms in medical terminology has been more frequent than in other domains, which has in some cases resulted in the use of two or more synonyms for the same concept. The use of eponyms in medical terminology has been more frequent than in other domains, which has in some cases resulted in the use of two or more synonyms for the same concept. The anatomical terms, which include names or surnames of researchers who were the first describe certain anatomical structures greatly contributes to a better understanding of the topographical and anatomical characteristics of an organ or a body area. The study of eponymous terms also contributes to the a stronger understanding of the evolution of clinical disciplines, to fostering critical thinking, as well as is a prerequisite for developing professional competence of medical students, their masterying the medical language.

The article examines the problem of spreading fake news in the sphere of scientific information. Social networks, blogs, podcasts and many other Internet channels overload the information field and contribute to the spread of false information. This situation negatively affects the process of interaction between science and society. In this regard, the library can serve as a source of reliable scientific information. The purpose of the article is to present the results of the analyses of capabilities of libraries as a source of reliable scientific information in the struggle with fake news.The context of the modern information space makes its own demands to the broadcast of any message. Erroneous or false information, that the broadcast message contains, could be duplicated in various sources. Attention to the source of information and its sender should be very high. In this regard, it is necessary to take a more responsible approach to choosing the source of information.The object of the article is to examine based on foreign publications the problem of fake news and the place of the library as the source of reliable information. The LENS.ORG platform was the main source used. Foreign authors confirm the importance of the work of libraries as a significant social institution oriented towards the development of the society of knowledge.The analysis of the document flow on the theme has made it possible to define the place of the library in solving the problem of spreading false scientific information. The conclusion has been made, that libraries’ activities, besides preserving and spreading information, should be supplemented with the struggle with false information.Information literacy activities and work to identify unreliable information in the field of science are becoming particularly relevant.

The article represents а general characteristic of proper names in multicomponent eponymic names of surgical instruments for general and special purpose that operate in Ukrainian language; their terminological status has been clarified, the description of extra linguistic factors that determine the creation, appearance and functioning of eponymic terms has been carried out; lexico-semantic and pragmatic features of eponymic terms have been characterized; thematic groups of analysed proper names in multicomponent eponyms and their productive derivational models have been singled out. With the development of medical sciences and technological progress new eponymical terms more often get into the sphere of professional use, in the base of which are the inventions, the creators of which are single scientists and whole scientific schools. There is a need for specialized reference books, dictionaries, the use of which considerably reduces the time of medical specialist for interpretation the eponymical term. Research questions of proper names in multicomponent eponyms continue to be urgent today. The research allows promoting cross-language coordination and ensuring comparability of medical terminological vocabulary, enriching the terminological system, exchanging the scientific information and improving the quality process in professional communication. The proper names composed of multicomponent eponyms are special names that respond the main signs of the term. 1. Eponymical terms of proper names represent complex of medical concepts and they are the part of the language of surgical medicine. They are the reflection of the development of medical knowledge and revealing of professional activities. 2. Among the eponymic terms, the most productive by the number of components is the word – formation model of "a noun in the nominative case + proper name in the genitive case." In multicomponent eponyms, proper name is a part of terminological unit and it specifies the kind of concept. 3. Proper names in multicomponent eponyms have synonymic rows. Being as the creating base, they may be framed in a semantic word family. 4. There may be paronymy in eponymic terms of surgical instruments, which leads to disorientation and confusion while using. 5. Proper names in the multicomponent eponymous of surgical instruments are divided according to the conceptual-thematic signs such as the "names of the instruments, devices" into 27 groups and on the conceptual-thematic signs such as "the title of functional activities and processes" - into 8 groups. Prospects for further research. The results of the study may be used in choosing the optimal methods of studying the surgical terminology, in teaching the history of medicine and surgical disciplines as well. Further researches make it possible to compile the professional dictionary of proper names in eponymic terms of surgical instruments.

This study explores how consumers’ eating motives, need for cognition, and subjective ability to evaluate information were associated with the perceived influence of scientific and commercial information sources, and how these were associated with a self-reported consumption of red meat and plant-based alternatives. An online survey of a nationally representative sample of the 18- to 65-year-old adult population living in Finland (N = 1279) was analysed with structural equation modelling. The perceived influence of commercial sources was negatively associated, and the perceived influence of scientific sources positively associated with a plant-based diet. The health motive and subjective ability to evaluate information were positively associated with the perceived influence of scientific information sources and negatively associated with the perceived influence of commercial sources. The environmental motive was positively associated with commercial sources. The findings can be used for tailoring food-related communication to suit the motivations and information assessment capacities of different consumers. In particular, public authorities need to respond to the information needs of environmentally conscious consumers, increase public awareness of the environmental impacts of red meat, and train consumers to assess information quality.

This article reports from a qualitative study of how 16-year-old Norwegian pupils dealt with a socioscientific issue. The pupils were interviewed on aspects of their decision-making concerning a local version of the well-known controversial issue: whether or not power transmission lines increase the risk for childhood leukaemia. The part of the study reported here has focused on their views on the trustworthiness of knowledge claims, arguments and opinions given to them prior to interview. It was found that many aspects of trustworthiness were experienced as problematic by the pupils. Using inductive analysis, four main kinds of 'resolution strategies' were identified that were used by the pupils to decide who and what to trust: 1) Acceptance of knowledge claim, 2) Evaluation of statements using 'reliability indicators' and through explicitly 'thinking for themselves', 3) Acceptance of researchers or other sources of information as authoritative, 4) Evaluation of sources of information in terms of 'interests', 'neutrality' or 'competence'. Some pupils used all these strategies, others used only one or two. The pupils' evaluations were nuanced and based partly on empirical evidence, but mostly on rather superficial contextual information. It is argued that some of the resolution strategies imply that autonomous evaluations were made. One main conclusion is that knowledge of different sources of scientific information needs to be more emphasized in science education for citizenship.

Survey on colorectal cancer screening knowledge, attitudes, and practices of general practice physicians in Lazio, Italy

&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;The last decade had seen an emergence of a new more dynamic and inconsistent media ecosystem. Digital media (i.e. social media) are accused by many independent researchers and influential observers, to have played a significant role in spread of science misinformation. Wide-ranging discussions about so-called &amp;amp;#8216;post-truth&amp;amp;#8217; or &amp;amp;#8216;fake news&amp;amp;#8217; phenomena have significantly involved science-related topics such as vaccines, GMO&amp;amp;#8217;s, climate change or homeopathy.&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;The issue of credibility and reliability of information is therefore central for science communication and public understanding of science.&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;CONCISE (&amp;amp;#8220;Communication role on perception and beliefs of EU Citizens about Science&amp;amp;#8221;), an EU research project intends to understand the role of science communication in beliefs, perceptions and knowledge of science and technology issues among European citizens from five countries: Spain, Italy, Portugal, Poland and Slovakia.&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;This paper presents preliminary quantitative results from Italian public consultation analysis regarding preferred citizen&amp;amp;#180;s information channels and sources of scientific information. We will explore data to understand how trust in science is built, how citizens form opinions about the science, which sources of information they use and how they think can science communication could be more effective.&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;

This article reports from a qualitative study of how 16-year-old Norwegian pupils dealt with a socioscientific issue. The pupils were interviewed on aspects of their decision-making concerning a local version of the well-known controversial issue: whether or not power transmission lines increase the risk for childhood leukaemia. The part of the study reported here has focused on their views on the trustworthiness of knowledge claims, arguments and opinions given to them prior to interview. It was found that many aspects of trustworthiness were experienced as problematic by the pupils. Using inductive analysis, four main kinds of 'resolution strategies' were identified that were used by the pupils to decide who and what to trust: 1) Acceptance of knowledge claim, 2) Evaluation of statements using 'reliability indicators' and through explicitly 'thinking for themselves', 3) Acceptance of researchers or other sources of information as authoritative, 4) Evaluation of sources of information in terms of 'interests', 'neutrality' or 'competence'. Some pupils used all these strategies, others used only one or two. The pupils' evaluations were nuanced and based partly on empirical evidence, but mostly on rather superficial contextual information. It is argued that some of the resolution strategies imply that autonomous evaluations were made. One main conclusion is that knowledge of different sources of scientific information needs to be more emphasized in science education for citizenship.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, online media were the most widely used sources of scientific information. Often, they are also the only ones on science-related topics. Research has shown that much of the information available on the Internet about the health crisis lacked scientific rigor, and that misinformation about health issues can pose a threat to public health. In turn, millions of Catholics were found to be demonstrating against vaccination against COVID-19 based on "false" and misleading religious arguments. This research analyses publications about the vaccine in Catholic online media with the aim of understanding the presence of information (and misinformation) in this community. An algorithm designed for each media outlet collected COVID-19 vaccine-related publications from 109 Catholic media outlets in five languages. In total, 970 publications were analysed for journalistic genres, types of headlines and sources of information. The results show that most publications are informative and most of their headlines are neutral. However, opinion articles have mostly negative headlines. Furthermore, a higher percentage of the opinion authors come from the religious sphere and most of the sources cited are religious. Finally, 35% of the publications relate the vaccine to the framing issue of abortion.

This article reviews the book Information Sources in Science and Technology. 3rd ed. Englewood, CO : Libraries Unlimited, 1998, by C.D. Hurt.