Abstract
This study provides the first technique to investigate the turbulent fluxes over the Great Lakes from July 2001 to December 2014 using a combination of data from satellite remote sensing, reanalysis data sets, and direct measurements. Turbulent fluxes including latent heat flux (QE) and sensible heat flux (QH) were estimated using the bulk aerodynamic approach, then compared with the direct eddy covariance measurements from the rooftop of three lighthouses—Stannard Rock Lighthouse (SR) in Lake Superior, White Shoal Lighthouse (WS) in Lake Michigan, and Spectacle Reef Lighthouse (SP) in Lake Huron. The relationship between modeled and measured QE and QH were in a good statistical agreement, for QE, R2 varied from 0.41 (WS), 0.74 (SR), and 0.87 (SP) with RMSE of 5.68, 6.93, and 4.67 W·m−2, respectively, while QH, R2 ranged from 0.002 (WS), 0.8030 (SP) and 0.94 (SR) with RMSE of 6.97, 4.39 and 4.90 W·m−2 respectively. Both monthly mean QE and QH were highest in January for all lakes except Lake Ontario, which was highest in early December. The turbulent fluxes then sharply drop in March and are negligible during June and July. The evaporation processes continue again in August.
Highlights
The North American Laurentian Great Lakes are among the most valuable freshwater resource in the world
We provide the first technique to investigate the turbulent fluxes including latent heat flux (QE )
The bulk aerodynamic approach was calculated from wind speed, temperature gradient and vapor pressure gradient with the atmospheric correction term calculated based on the Richardson number
Summary
The North American Laurentian Great Lakes are among the most valuable freshwater resource in the world. The measurements sample a relatively small area (approximately 8 km upwind) relative to the large size of the lakes and, the spatial variation across the lakes should be determined For this reason, Earth observation systems including remote sensing and reanalysis are the most convenient means to adequately capture the spatiotemporal variability of the surface energy balance for large lakes like the North American Great Lakes. We investigate the turbulent fluxes over the Great Lakes from July 2001 to December 2014 based on the bulk aerodynamic approach by using a combination of data from satellite remote sensing, reanalysis datasets, and direct measurements
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