The effects of traditional and autoregulation priming methods on neuromuscular performance and recovery outcomes in rugby players: a randomized crossover study

To determine changes in well-being, recovery, and neuromuscular performance during and after an elite women's rugby sevens tournament and assess the influence of match-load indicators. Twelve elite women rugby sevens players (age = 25.3 [4.1]y, height = 169.0 [4.0]cm, weight = 63.9 [4.9]kg, and body fat = 18.6% [2.7%]) performed 5 matches during a 2-d tournament of the Women's Rugby Sevens World Series. Perceived well-being (fatigue, sleep quality, general muscle soreness, stress levels, and mood), total quality of recovery, and countermovement-jump flight time were measured on match days 1 and 2, 1 d posttournament, and 2 d posttournament. Total distance; low-, moderate-, and high-intensity running; and physical contacts during matches were derived from global positioning system-based time-motion analysis and video-based notational analysis, respectively. Internal match load was calculated by session rating of perceived exertion and playing time (rating of perceived exertion × duration). Well-being (P < .001), fatigue (P < .001), general muscle soreness (P < .001), stress levels (P < .001), mood (P = .005), and total quality of recovery (P < .001) were significantly impaired after match day 1 and did not return to baseline values until 2 d posttournament. More high-intensity running was related to more fatigue (r = -.60, P = .049) and a larger number of physical contacts with more general muscle soreness (r = -.69, P = .013). Perceived well-being and total quality of recovery were already impaired after match day 1, although performance was maintained. High-intensity running and physical contacts were predominantly related to fatigue and general muscle soreness, respectively.

Our aim was to compare the effects of two exercise modalities vs resting on the time course of neuromuscular performance and muscle damage recovery during the week after running a marathon. Sixty-four finishers from a road marathon completed the study (54 men and 10 women; 39 ± 4 years; 3 h 35 min ± 21 min). The day before the race, within 15 min after finishing the marathon and at 24, 48, 96, 144 and 192 h postrace, lactate dehydrogenase and creatine kinase were analysed. Participants also performed a squat jump (SJ) test before and after the marathon and at 48, 96 and 144 h postrace. On their arrival to the finish line, participants were randomized into one of the three intervention groups: running (RUN), elliptical training (ELIP) and resting recovery (REST). RUN and ELIP groups exercised continuously for 40 min at a moderate intensity (95–105% of the HR corresponding to the first ventilatory threshold) at 48, 96 and 144 h after the marathon. Neither ‘Intervention’ factor nor ‘Intervention x Time’ interaction effects were revealed for muscle damage blood markers (p > 0.05). On the other hand, RUN group evidenced an enhancement in SJ performance 96 h post-marathon as compared with REST group (108.29 ± 10.64 vs 100.58 ± 9.16%, p = 0.020, d = 0.80). Consequently, return to running at 48 h post-marathon does not seem to have a negative impact on muscle damage recovery up to eight days post-race and it could be recommended in order to speed up neuromuscular recovery.

Ishida, A, Bazyler, CD, Sayers, AL, Mizuguchi, S, and Gentles, JA. Acute effects of match-play on neuromuscular and subjective recovery and stress state in Division I collegiate female soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 35(4): 976-982, 2021-The purpose of this study was to investigate acute effects of match-play on neuromuscular performance and subjective recovery and stress state and the relationship between training load (TL) and changes in neuromuscular performance in female soccer players. Twelve National Collegiate Athlete Association Division I players participated (20.7 ± 2.3 years; 64.4 ± 7.2 kg; 164.5 ± 6.0 cm) and completed countermovement jump (CMJ) at 0 kg (CMJ0) and 20 kg (CMJ20) and the Short Recovery Stress Scale (SRSS) at 3 hours pre-match (Pre), 12 hours post-match (Post12), and 38 hours post-match (Post38). Countermovement jump variables included body mass, jump height (JH), modified reactive strength index (RSI), peak force (PF), relative PF, eccentric impulse, concentric impulse (CI), peak power (PP), relative PP (RPP), eccentric average PP, and concentric average power (CAP). The SRSS consists of 4 Stress Scales (SSs) and 4 Recovery Scales (RSs). Training loads included total distance, total PlayerLoad, high-speed running, and session ratings of perceived exertion. Significant moderate to large decreases were observed from Pre to Post12 in JH, RSI, CI, PP, RPP, and CAP in CMJ0 and CMJ20 (p < 0.05, effect size [ES] = 0.63-1.35). Significant changes were observed from Pre to Post12 in all RSs (p < 0.05, ES = 0.65-0.79) and 3 SSs (p < 0.05, ES = 0.71-0.77). Significant correlations were observed between CMJ20 PP from Pre to Post12 and all TLs (p < 0.05, r = -0.58 to -0.68). CMJ0 and CMJ20 JH and PP may indicate acute neuromuscular changes after match-play. The magnitude of CMJ20 PP decrements from Pre to Post12 may be affected by soccer match-play volumes.

The aim of the present exploratory study was to assess the changes in urinary oxytocin (OT) concentration during the period between five days before, and on the day of match, among rugby and handball players. Nine male rugby players with a mean age of 27.62 years (SD = 4.21) and 18 male handball players with a mean age of 17.03 years (SD = 0.57) participated. Urinary oxytocin level was measured by ELISA immunoassay as a ratio to the concentration of creatinine [mg/ml] measured through colorimetric detection. The relative level of OT to creatinine (OT/CRE) significantly differed between the type of player (rugby or handball) but not between times of measurements. Significant differences were only between OT/CRE level in a day of match in rugby players and in 5 days before match in handball players (p&lt;0.05). There was no change in oxytocin levels during the time periods between five days before and on the day of a match, in either of the two kinds of players. The change in oxytocin might be traceable during the match but not before a match and this perhaps depends on a more subtle context of competition, but not on the assumption of competition. Further studies are needed based on more homogenous group with higher number of matches.

External training load (TLE) is used to quantify the biomechanical load accrued during training. The countermovement (CMJ) jump is used to evaluate neuromuscular fatigue and recovery in response to TLE. However, limited research has coupled TLEparameters with changes in neuromuscular performance variables from the CMJ. PURPOSE: The purpose of this investigation was twofold: 1) to characterize TLE across the pre-season and 2) examine the differences in TLEper session and CMJ performance across the 5 weeks of preseason training in NCAA D1 basketball athletes. Additional analyses examined the influence of position and scholarship standings. METHODS: TLEwas monitored in 14 male athletes during 22 basketball practice sessions over the course of the preseason. In addition, weekly CMJs were used as an indicator of neuromuscular fatigue and performance. A 3-way (2 X 2 X 5) Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance with Bonferroni post hoc analysis was used to examine differences in the average TLEper session each week and differences in the CMJ variables of Flight Time:Contraction Time (FT:CT) and Jump Height (JH) across time and between position (Guard vs. Forward/Center) and academics (Scholarship vs. Walk-on). Statistical significance was set at p ≤ 0.05) RESULTS: Player load per minute(PL; PL/min) was significantly higher during Week 1 and Week 2 compared to Week 3 (p < 0.05). No significant differences were observed for average PL, high inertial movement analysis (IMA), or Total Jumps per session across the 5 weeks of pre-season (p > 0.05). A significant group X time interaction indicated Scholarship athletes had greater PL, PL/min, 2 Dimensional PL, High IMA, and Total Jumps compared to the Walk-on athletes. Player position did not influence TLE. No significant differences were observed in FT:CT or JH over the 5 weeks of preseason (p > 0.05) or between groups (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION: The present study characterizes the TLEdemands in collegiate basketball during the pre-season. The average TLEper week did not vary across 5 weeks of training, while differences in intensity (PL/min) were evident. While no differences were observed between position groups, there was a significant difference in TLEbetween scholarship and walk-on athletes.

García-Sánchez, C, Jiménez-Ormeño, E, Lominchar-Ramos, JM, Giráldez-Costas, V, McMahon, JJ, and Soriano, MA. Effects of a short-term detraining period on neuromuscular performance in female handball players. J Strength Cond Res 39(3): e469-e477, 2025-The aim of this study was to determine the effects of a 3-week detraining period on lower limbs' neuromuscular performance in female handball players. Fourteen semi-professional players (age: 20.50 ± 2.98 years; height: 1.67 ± 0.06 m; body mass: 66.89 ± 8.75 kg) were evaluated using force plates on 3 separate occasions to assess the maximum and rapid force production by the isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) and the ballistic capabilities by countermovement jump (CMJ). The intraclass correlation coefficient, coefficient of variation, standard error of the measurement, and smallest detectable difference were calculated using the first 2 testing sessions. Pre- and postdetraining differences were calculated comparing the first and third testing sessions, using paired t -tests or Wilcoxon test when appropriate and Hedges g effect sizes (ES). The level of significance was set at ρ ≤ 0.05. There were no significant or meaningful differences in maximum and rapid force production capabilities assessed during the IMTP ( p > 0.05). However, there was a significant detriment with small ES in CMJ jump height, modified reactive strength index, peak and mean propulsive force, peak and mean braking force, and braking phase duration ( p < 0.05). These findings suggest that although maximum and rapid force production capabilities were not altered among female handball players after a 3-week detraining period, their ballistic capabilities decreased, especially those affecting the eccentric part of a fast dynamic task. They also highlight the importance of testing, planning, and programming in response to the fluctuations in handball players' physical performance over the season.

Ye, X, Hale, C, Brown, E, Clausi, E, Hudak, J, Marino, A, and Mezanko, T. Effects of percussion massage therapy on neuromuscular recovery from eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage. J Strength Cond Res 39(7): 745-752, 2025-The aim of this study was to examine the effects of percussion massage intervention on neuromuscular function and performance recovery from eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage. Twenty healthy and physically active volunteers underwent an elbow flexion eccentric exercise protocol (6 sets of 10 repetitions with 80% of the concentric one-repetition maximum) with their nondominant arms. The indirect markers of muscle damage (muscle soreness, elbow flexion range of motion, upper arm circumference, elbow flexion isometric strength along with voluntary activation percentage, and resting twitch) were measured before, immediately, and 24, 48, and 168 hours after the eccentric exercise. The subjects were randomly assigned to either (a) percussion massage group (Percussion, n = 10): received 5 minutes of percussion massage treatment at the end of the eccentric exercise visit, the end of 24 hours, and the end of 48 hours after the exercise, or (b) control group (CON, n = 10): did not receive any treatment. Separate 2-way (time × group) mixed factorial analysis of variance tests were used to examine the potential changes of muscle damage indirect markers across time between groups. Significant main effects for time were observed in all dependent variables ( p < 0.05); however, no interactions or group differences were found in any of these variables. Therefore, our study suggests that using percussion massage does not accelerate recovery after high-intensity muscle damaging eccentric exercise.

To examine the efficacy of wild ginseng extract (WGE) on psychomotor and neuromuscular performance recovery following acute eccentric exercise. This study was a double-blind, crossover, and placebo-controlled design with a 14-day washout period. Ten male adults, aged 27.1 ± 4.33 years old, voluntarily participated in the study. Subjects were assigned to one of two parallel conditions (WGE or placebo) in a counterbalanced manner. Subjects consumed two packs of WGE (350 mg/package) or placebo drink immediately after acute eccentric exercise and the following four days. The eccentric exercise consisted of 20 min of downhill running at 60% of VO2peak and five sets (of 20) of drop jump exercise. Computer-based cognitive function test and neuromuscular performance tests, including straight leg raise, vertical jump, isometric leg strength, and anaerobic power test were administered four times, at baseline, 2 h, 48 h, and 96 h after acute exercise. The interleukin-6 (IL-6), myoglobin, cortisol, total antioxidant capacity (TAC), and perceived muscle soreness were also assessed at each time point. A significance level was set at 0.05. No significant differences between the WGE and the placebo groups were observed in psychomotor and neuromuscular performance variables. Blood markers, including IL-6 (p = 0.013), myoglobin (p &lt; 0.001), and cortisol level (p = 0.047) were changed significantly across the time. A post-hoc test revealed that a significant increase in IL-6 was observed only in the placebo group (p = 0.014), while no significant changes found in the WGE condition. The perceived muscle soreness was not different between the WGE and the placebo conditions. The administration of WGE immediately after acute eccentric exercise and the following four days have no benefits on psychomotor and neuromuscular performance recovery in healthy adults. However, the acute WGE supplementation may attenuate the eccentric exercise-induced inflammatory process, such as IL-6, but future study with a large sample size is required to clarify the anti-inflammation process in response to acute eccentric exercise.

Vasileiou, SS, Asimakidis, ND, Dalamitros, AA, and Manou, V. Effects of an 8-week in-season explosive power training program on neuromuscular performance and lower limb asymmetries in young male soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 38(12): 2121-2128, 2024-This study analyzed the effects of incorporating 8 weeks of twice-weekly explosive power training on neuromuscular performance and lower-limb asymmetries applied to soccer. Thirty-five young male soccer players were randomly assigned to either the experimental group (EXP: n = 18; mean age: 13.7 ± 0.8 years; height: 166.9 ± 8.4 cm; body mass: 58.5 ± 12.8 kg) or the control group (CON: n = 17; mean age: 13.7 ± 0.9 years; height: 168.8 ± 9.1 cm; body mass: 58.0 ± 11.4 kg). Before (TP 1 ) and after the training period (TP 2 ) neuromuscular performance (countermovement jump [CMJ], 10 and 20 m sprint times [T10 and T20], change of direction ability [COD]) and lower-limb asymmetries (single-leg CMJ [SLCMJ]) were evaluated. The asymmetry index (AI) for COD and CMJ tests was also calculated. Significant differences (from TP 1 to TP 2 ) were revealed for all the tested parameters in the EXP group (1.50-4.9%, p < 0.00 to 0.12, effect size [ES] = -0.44 to 0.27). For the CON group, T10, T20 505 for nondominant limb and SLCMJ performances for both limbs were significantly improved (0.85 to 1.5%, p < 0.00 to 0.21, ES = -0.36 to 0.37). Finally, the AI remained relatively unchanged for both tests and groups (1.28-3.33%, p = 0.162-0.521). These results indicate that adding twice-weekly explosive power training for 8 weeks can improve neuromuscular performance and reduce lower-limb asymmetries to a greater degree than soccer training alone in young male soccer players.

Nieto-Acevedo, R, García-Sánchez, C, Romero-Moraleda, B, Varela, D, and Cabarkapa, D. The effect of a short-term detraining period on neuromuscular performance in elite U18 male basketball players. J Strength Cond Res 39(11): e1305-e1312, 2025-The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of 14 days of detraining (complete cessation in training) on neuromuscular performance in 10 elite basketball male players younger than 18 years. A descriptive longitudinal design was used, the athletes were evaluated using force plates on 3 separate occasions (i.e., 14 days prior, 24 hours after, and 14 days after). Neuromuscular performance was evaluated using isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP), countermovement vertical jump (CMJ), and 20-meter sprint tests. Test-retest reliability was established in 2 preliminary sessions. Prepost detraining differences were analyzed using paired t tests. No significant differences pre- and postdetraining were observed in IMTP ( p > 0.05; effect size [ES] = 0.0-0.13), and 20-meter sprint ( p = 0.07, ES = 0.69). However, CMJ performance exhibited significant increases in reactive strength index-modified, peak and mean propulsive force, peak and mean braking force, and braking net impulse ( p < 0.001-0.017; ES = 0.50-0.73), alongside reductions in propulsive phase duration and time to take off ( p < 0.001; ES = 0.49 and 0.019; ES = 0.88, respectively). Despite 14 days of detraining, IMTP and sprint performance remained stable, while some braking and propulsive metrics of CMJ demonstrated significant positive adaptations. Overall, these findings suggest that short-term detraining does not impair maximal force production or sprint ability and induces alterations in jump mechanics, particularly within braking and propulsive phases of CMJ. Coaches should consider the observed neuromuscular changes-particularly the reduction in take-off time despite stable jump height-when planning training resumption strategies. Emphasizing the restoration of explosive strength and reactivation of movement patterns early in the return-to-training phase may help mitigate potential performance fluctuations after short-term detraining.

Wellness questionnaires are common in monitoring systems, yet the sensitivity to variations in acute training intensity is unclear. This study examined the controlled dosage effects of differing exercise intensities on wellness variables and subsequent associations with neuromuscular performance. Participants (n = 10) completed low-, moderate- and high-intensity conditions of a 90 min simulated football match shuttle running protocol scaled relative to beep test scores. The protocols were completed in a randomised and counterbalanced fashion matched for time of day. Wellness (sleep quality, readiness to train, soreness, fatigue, stress, mood, motivation) and neuromuscular performance (maximal voluntary contraction, countermovement jump, 6 s cycle-ergometer sprint) were assessed pre-, post- and 24 h post-exercise. Heart rate (HR) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded during, and session RPE (sRPE) after exercise. Generalised linear mixed models demonstrated main effects between conditions with increased HR, RPE and sRPE (P < 0.03; d > 0.8) responses from the low-high condition. Total and z-score wellness showed no significant differences between trials at any time-point (P > 0.05; d = 0.03–0.91). Fatigue was lower 24 h post-exercise for the low, compared to moderate and high conditions (P = 0.006–0.047; d = 1.20–1.77). Ratings of fatigue and soreness increased from pre- to 24 h post-trial (P < 0.003; d = 0.96–2.48), while total wellness and readiness to train decreased over time (P < 0.04; d = 0.91–1.86). Wellness showed limited capacity to differentiate training intensities. Practitioners should be aware while wellness may be highly practical, it may be limited to solely determine athlete accommodation of load considering the strength of association observed with the applied load.

Adaptations and acute physiological effects of various resistance training programs in adolescent and elite athletes

Gonçalves, CA, Lopes, TJD, Nunes, C, Marinho, DA, and Neiva, HP. Neuromuscular jumping performance and upper-body horizontal power of volleyball players. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2019-The aim of the current study was to characterize the neuromuscular jumping performance and upper-body horizontal power of elite and subelite volleyball players. In addition, those neuromuscular performances were compared between field positions. One hundred twenty-two male volleyball players participated in the study: 83 elite players (mean ± SD: 24.11 ± 5.57 years) and 39 subelite players (25.38 ± 6.19 years). They were divided according to their playing position: setters (n = 22), opposite hitters (n = 16), middle hitters (n = 30), right-side hitters (n = 38), and liberos (n = 16). Each participant randomly performed 3 repetitions of medicine ball throwing (MBT), countermovement jump (CMJ), CMJ with free arms (CMJFA), and spike jump (SPJ). The results showed no significant differences between positions in the analyzed variables. However, there were differences between elite and subelite in the CMJ (p = 0.000, ηp = 0.12), the CMJFA (p = 0.000, ηp = 0.15), the SPJ (p = 0.000, ηp = 0.21), and MBT (p = 0.001, ηp = 0.09), showing a tendency for increased jumping performance and upper-body horizontal power for elite players. The elite opposite hitters and right-side hitters recorded greater CMJ performances (d = 1.20 and d = 1.62, respectively). The right-side hitters were the only group that showed greater horizontal upper-body muscular power (p = 0.000, d = 1.50). It is suggested that jumping performance is a determining factor for higher-level players, which was more relevant for the opposite hitters and right-side hitters. Nevertheless, the movement pattern of MBT seems to be relevant for the right-side hitters. Coaches should seek to develop jumping ability for the improvement of volleyball performances, without disregarding upper-body performances, depending on the position-specific demands.

We aimed to explore the effects of caffeinated gel ingestion on neuromuscular performance in resistance-trained men. The participants (n = 17; mean ± standard deviation (SD): age 23 ± 2 years, height 183 ± 5 cm, body mass 83 ± 11 kg) completed two testing conditions that involved ingesting a caffeinated gel (300 mg of caffeine) or placebo. The testing outcomes included: (1) vertical jump height in the squat jump (SJ) and countermovement jump (CMJ); (2) knee extension and flexion peak torque and average power at angular velocities of 60°·s−1 and 180°·s−1; (3) barbell velocity in the bench press with loads corresponding to 50%, 75%, and 90% of one-repetition maximum (1RM); and (4) peak power output in a test on a rowing ergometer. Compared to the placebo, caffeine improved: (1) SJ (p = 0.039; Cohen’s d effect size (d) = 0.18; +2.9%) and CMJ height (p = 0.011; d = 0.18; +3.3%); (2) peak torque and average power in the knee extensors at both angular velocities (d ranged from 0.21 to 0.37; percent change from +3.5% to +6.9%), peak torque (p = 0.034; d = 0.24; +4.6%), and average power (p = 0.015; d = 0.32; +6.7%) at 60°·s−1 in the knee flexors; (3) barbell velocity at 50% 1RM (p = 0.021; d = 0.33; +3.5%), 75% 1RM (p < 0.001; d = 0.42; +5.4%), and 90% 1RM (p < 0.001; d = 0.59, +12.0%). We conclude that the ingestion of caffeinated gels may acutely improve vertical jump performance, strength, and power in resistance-trained men.

Purpose: Since the effect of dietary nitrate (NO3 -) supplementation on rugby performance is unclear, the aim of the present study was to determine the effect of acute NO3 - supplementation, on the modified Yo-Yo intermittent recovery level 1 (IR1) performance test in trained male rugby players. Methods: In a randomised, counterbalanced, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover design, 12 trained rugby union players performed two experimental trials three hours after supplementation of either 140 mL NO3 --rich (BRJ; ∼12.8 mmol NO3 -) or NO3 --depleted (PLA) BRJ. After blood sampling, players performed the modified Yo-Yo IR1 test. Countermovement jumps (CMJ) were also measured before (pre-CMJ) and after (post-CMJ) the prone Yo-Yo IR1 test. Results: Plasma NO3 - (BRJ: 570 ± 146 µM vs. PLA: 72 ± 23 µM) and nitrite (NO2 -) concentrations (BRJ: 320 ± 123 nM vs. PLA: 103 ± 57 nM) were increased after BRJ compared to PLA supplementation (both P < 0.001). Performance in the modified Yo-Yo IR1 test did not differ between BRJ (542 ± 209 m) and PLA (498 ± 185 m, P = 0.3). The jump height in pre-CMJ and in post-CMJ were similar between trials (both P > 0.05). Conclusions: Acute BRJ supplementation increased plasma NO3 - and NO2 - concentrations but had no benefit on an intermittent running test that reflects the demands of rugby performance, and CMJ performances. The findings do not support acute high-dose NO3 - supplementation as an ergogenic aid to enhance physical performance in trained male rugby players.