The effects of concept mapping and summarisation on L2 readers' comprehension monitoring and metacognitive accuracy : a mixed-methods study

We examined the contribution of working memory capacity to the development of children’s reading comprehension. We present data from three waves of a longitudinal study when the children were 7 years (Grade 1), 8 years (Grade 2) and 9 years (Grade 3). Two questions were raised: The first question concerned the developmental changes of the relative contribution of working memory in predicting reading comprehension compared to vocabulary and decoding skills. The second question explored to what extent reading comprehension could be predicted by working memory capacity measured at a prior time. At the end of each grade, reading comprehension, nonword reading, vocabulary knowledge and working memory capacity were assessed. To test the first question, the predictive power of working memory capacity was compared to vocabulary and decoding skills by performing concurrent multiple-regression analyses in each grade. The results showed that working memory capacity emerged as a direct predictor of reading comprehension in Grade 3. To address the second question, we performed multiple-regression analyses predicting reading comprehension from working memory, nonword reading, and vocabulary measured at a prior time. In these analyses, the autoregressive effect was taken into account to separately assess the unique contribution of each predictor to the development of later reading comprehension. The results showed that Grade 1 vocabulary and Grade 2 working memory had additional effects on Grade 3 reading comprehension after the autoregressive effect of reading comprehension had been accounted for. These findings support the idea that, as word recognition becomes automated throughout the early grade levels, working memory becomes an important determinant of reading comprehension. There is also evidence that working memory capacity directly influences the development of reading comprehension skills. The direction of the causal flow is discussed.

The authors report data from a longitudinal study that addresses the relations between working memory capacity and reading comprehension skills in children aged 8, 9, and 11 years. At each time point, the authors assessed children's reading ability, vocabulary and verbal skills, performance on 2 working memory assessments (sentence-span and digit working memory), and component skills of comprehension. At each time point, working memory and component skills of comprehension (inference making, comprehension monitoring, story structure knowledge) predicted unique variance in reading comprehension after word reading ability and vocabulary and verbal ability controls. Further analyses revealed that the relations between reading comprehension and both inference making and comprehension monitoring were not wholly mediated by working memory. Rather, these component skills explained their own unique variance in reading comprehension.

ABSTRACTFollowing an extensive overview of the subject, this study explores the relationships between second-language (L2) explicit/implicit knowledge sources, embedded in the declarative/procedural memory systems, and L2 working memory (WM) capacity. It further examines the relationships between L2 reading comprehension and L2 WM capacity as well as those between L2 reading comprehension and L2 explicit/implicit knowledge sources. Participants were late adult learners of English as an L2, with a relatively advanced level of English proficiency. They completed tests measuring their WM capacity, explicit knowledge, implicit knowledge, and L2 reading comprehension. Correlation analysis revealed significant relationships between L2 WM capacity and both explicit and implicit L2 knowledge. Exploratory factor analysis showed that explicit knowledge, WM capacity, and L2 reading comprehension loaded on a single factor whereas implicit L2 knowledge formed an independent factor with no relationship to L2 reading. The results suggest that L2 WM is able to manipulate and store both explicit and implicit L2 input through controlled and automatic processes. They also suggest that L2 explicit knowledge, connected with the control processes of the declarative system's lexical/semantic features, and L2 WM, reflecting attentional resource capacity/allocation associated with control processes, play an important role in L2 reading comprehension.

Understanding written text is crucial in language acquisition, and the cognitive style and working memory capacity of an individual play crucial roles in determining their level of reading comprehension. Individual differences may result in different reading strategies being employed during the reading process. Research has demonstrated that cognitive style and working memory capacity can impact language learning outcomes like vocabulary acquisition, grammar comprehension, and speaking fluency. However, there is a lack of research on how these cognitive factors relate to the reading strategies utilized by English as a second Language learners. The purpose of this study is to explore the relationship between Field-Independent and Field-Dependent (FI/FD) cognitive styles and working memory capacity in relation to the utilization of English reading strategies among freshmen engineering majors at BIPT. Data is gathered utilizing the theoretical model of FI/FD cognitive styles, working memory capacity and English reading strategies. The collected data includes results from the Cognitive Style Figure Test (CSFT), Reading Span Test, and a questionnaire on English reading strategies, which are then analyzed using SPSS 22.0. The findings from the thorough analysis show that there exists a notable relationship between working memory capacity and the utilization of reading strategies in relation to FI/FD cognitive styles. Students exhibiting an FI cognitive style tend to favor the implementation of cognitive and metacognitive strategies, whereas those with an FD style are inclined towards employing social/affective strategies. Additionally, disparities in the use of reading strategies are observed between students with high and low working memory capacity. Students with high working memory capacity demonstrate a higher tendency to employ cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, and social/emotional strategies when compared to those with low memory capacity.

Listening comprehension constitutes a considerable challenge for second language learners, but little is known about the relative contribution of individual differences in distinct factors to listening comprehension. Since research in this area is relatively limited in comparison to that focusing on the relationship between reading comprehension and factors such as vocabulary knowledge and working memory, there is a need for studies that seek to fill the gap in our knowledge about the specific contribution of aural vocabulary knowledge, written vocabulary knowledge and working memory capacity to explaining listening comprehension. Among 130 non-native speakers of English, the present study examines what proportion of the variance in listening comprehension is explained by aural vocabulary knowledge, written vocabulary knowledge, and working memory capacity. The results show that aural vocabulary knowledge is the strongest predictor of listening comprehension, followed by working memory capacity, while written vocabulary knowledge contributes only marginally. The study discusses implications for the explanatory power of aural vocabulary knowledge and working memory to listening comprehension and pedagogical practice in second language classrooms.

The main purpose of the current study is to investigate whether L2 reading comprehension is related to the processing and storage functions of working memory (WM) as well as explicit and implicit sources of knowledge in the L2. Byproducts of this question involve (a) whether the relationship between WM and reading comprehension is attributable to the linguistic nature of the complex span task; (b) whether WM is related to explicit and implicit types of linguistic knowledge in the L2. Participants were 84 late adult learners of English with a B2 level of proficiency. WM capacity was measured through reading span tasks (RST) administered in L1 and L2 and an operation span task (OST). An untimed grammaticality judgment test (GJT) and a metalinguistic knowledge test (MKT) were administered to measure explicit linguistic knowledge in the L2 while a timed GJT and an elicited oral imitation test (EOI) were used to measure implicit linguistic knowledge. Reading comprehension scores were obtained from a retired paper-based TOEFL. A principal component analysis (PCA) on the independent variables revealed a three-component model where processing and storage scores obtained from span tasks loaded on separate components reflecting a distinction between processing and storage functions of WM whereas explicit and implicit L2 knowledge measures loaded together on a single component. A regression analysis performed with factor scores from the PCA as independent variables and L2 reading comprehension scores as the dependent variable revealed significant contributions of WM’s processing function and L2 linguistic knowledge to reading comprehension in the L2. This suggests that the variance shared by WM capacity and L2 reading comprehension is not due to the linguistic nature of the span task but to the general processing efficiency of verbal WM capacity.

Working memory is believed to interact with a second language (L2) learning at the cognitive level. The present study sought to explore the impact of L2 readers’ prior knowledge on the contribution of working memory to reading comprehension. Eighty Iranian English learners were divided into two groups of high and low by their scores on L2 knowledge and the topic knowledge tests. Their working memory spans, and reading comprehension abilities were measured via a working memory test and a reading comprehension test respectively. The results indicated that working memory significantly predicted L2 reading comprehension only when the readers had sufficient topic knowledge. The results also show that the learners’ comprehension was mostly determined by their L2 linguistic knowledge, even when they had considerable working memory capacity. The findings imply that readers’ prior knowledge could moderate the contribution of working memory in L2 reading comprehension. A certain level of knowledge in the target language and on the topic is required for L2 readers to help working memory work more efficiently.

Working memory capacity is described as a pool of limited resources that carry out processing and storage functions. Its role has been emphasised in adults' reading comprehension. The present study had two aims: First, to study the relationship between working memory capacity and reading comprehension in fourth-grade children. Second, to study the nature of the working memory resources involved in reading comprehension, i.e., are they specific or general?To test the first point, the predictive power of working memory capacity was compared with two reading-related basic skills, vocabulary and decoding skills. To test the second point, different working memory tasks were devised using verbal, numerical and spatial materials. All the tasks were administered to 48 fourth-grade children. The results showed that working memory capacity was a direct predictor of reading comprehension when contrasted with vocabulary and decoding skills. Moreover, it seemed that working memory would be better described as a system specialised for the processing of symbolic information in that only the verbal and in a lesser extent the numerical working memory tasks were significant predictors of reading comprehension. The spatial task did not correlate with reading comprehension. The reasons accounting for the predictive power of working memory tasks were discussed.

Metacognitive reading strategies play an essential role in improving reading comprehension. This study explores the effects of English metacognitive reading strategies and reading comprehension in Kuwaiti primary school students as foreign language learners; this experimental study tries to find a relationship between students' metacognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, and students' reading performance. Participants were fifth grade EFL students in Kuwait primary education government public schools. The students' reading comprehension was evaluated. Comprehension tracking strategies were measured using Metacognitive strategies (K-W-L Plus). While the experimental groups (B) received instructions according to (K-W-L Plus) techniques, the control (A) group was trained with the traditional teaching approach based on the Kuwait national curriculum school textbooks. A questionnaire investigating the use of English and perceived English proficiency was also conducted. The results revealed that Perceived proficiency in English was not determined by the early or late pre-school age of second language acquisition. Also, bilingual students with perceived proficiency in English had better meta-cognitive reading skills than low perceived proficiency in English. Comprehension monitoring and (K-W-L) strategy was adequate and the most important predictor of reading comprehension among all students in the research sample.

Background and objective: Many student nurses are weak in studying medical-surgical nursing because higher-order skills are required to understand and incorporate prior knowledge with new knowledge. Hence, this study tried to employ concept mapping (CM) in teaching one medical-surgical nursing course to enhance their learning. The aims of this study are to explore the effects on student nurses’ learning experience and examine the difference in academic performance of students who learned this subject by using CM and those who did not.Methods: This was a mixed research study conducted in 2017. The overall grade and pass rate were used to compare the differences between CM and non-CM groups. Moreover, focus group discussions after semesters were used to explore the impact of CM on student nurses’ learning.Results: The difference of marks between the CM group (M = 77.90 and SD = 8.09) and non-CM group (M = 57.56 and SD = 10.16) was statistically significant (p = .000) with a large effect (Cohen’s d = 2.21). Twenty-six student nurses were interviewed in focus group discussions. The advantages and shortcomings of CM were identified. After new and prior knowledge was bridged, students used their own perceived effective method to re-organise knowledge and enhance their memory to prepare for written examinations.Conclusions: To conclude, CM seems able to improve students’ academic performance, and students gained a good understanding of the relationships between concepts in medical-surgical nursing, especially for the students who were new to the subject. The results of this study will provide insights for nurse educators who teach Chinese student nurses.

<span lang="EN-US">Students’ performance in biology in Rwanda National Examinations has been reported to be unsatisfactory. This demands teachers to shift to methods that enable students to acquire meaningful learning. In an attempt to cope with this situation, the effects of concept mapping (CM) and cooperative mastery learning (CML) on the cognitive process in biology among lower secondary school students in Nyamagabe district, Rwanda was investigated. A quasi-experimental non-equivalent pre-test, post-test control group design was applied to a sample of 449 senior secondary school two (SS2) students (224 males and 225 females) drawn from seven co-educational secondary schools purposively selected from 46 schools. The students were in CM (n=151), CML (n=144) and conventional teaching method (CTM) (n=154) groups. The biology Achievement Test with a reliability of 0.82 obtained from the Kuder Richardson (KR-21) formula was used to collect data. Analysis of Covariance and Bonferroni test were applied for data analysis. Findings revealed that CM and CML groups scored better in all cognitive domains tested than the CTM group. A statistically significant difference between CM and CML was observed in favor of the CM. Based on the findings, it was concluded that the CM and CML are capable of improving secondary school students’ mastery of the content taught at all levels of cognition. Therefore, learning with CM and CML could be a viable option for teachers for addressing attainment issues in biology.</span>

Reading is an indispensable skill for learners who desire success throughout their academic lives, and vocabulary knowledge is a sine qua non companion of reading comprehension. Despite being inextricably related entities, very little has been written about the necessary vocabulary coverage to understand an expository text and its equivalent in terms of vocabulary size in Turkish EFL context. Therefore, with this study, we focused on the relationship between the vocabulary coverage and reading comprehension of a group of foreign language learners. For this study, 178 university students completed a vocabulary checklist based on the vocabulary items of two different expository texts, and their reading comprehension levels were measured through two piloted reading comprehension tests for each text. The descriptive statistics, Pearson’s correlation value and regression analysis were employed to analyze the data. The results revealed that the text-based vocabulary knowledge moderately correlated with reading comprehension, and there was a relatively linear relationship between them. It was also concluded that the 98% vocabulary coverage is needed for foreign language learners to comprehend academic texts, and this coverage, in fact, refers to approximately the most frequent 8000 word-families based on the related studies.

This study aims to explore exploring the predictive factors of second language (L2) reading comprehension scores, specifically focusing on L2 vocabulary knowledge, first language (L1) syllogistic inferencing, L1 reading comprehension, and L2 reading metacognitive strategy use. The study involved 90 Korean EFL university students. Their L2 vocabulary knowledge, L1 syllogistic inferencing, L1 reading comprehension, L2 metacognitive reading strategy use scores were collected and analyzed for their influence on L2 reading comprehension scores. A path analysis was conducted for data analysis. The findings revealed that both L2 linguistic knowledge and proficiency in L1 reading comprehension had a positive impact on L2 reading comprehension scores, underscoring the significance of language-specific and crosslinguistic factors, respectively, in the comprehension of L2 reading. The results also indicated an indirect effect of L1 syllogistic inferencing skills on L2 reading comprehension through L1 reading comprehension. This implies that L1 syllogistic inferencing may boost L1 reading comprehension, subsequently benefiting L2 reading comprehension. Furthermore, the study brought to light the potential adverse effects of L2 support reading strategies on L2 reading comprehension. Overall, this study adds to our comprehensive understanding of L2 reading comprehension by shedding light on the intricate interplay of linguistic, cross-linguistic, and metacognitive factors.

Reading helps language users gain knowledge and empowers the users with the power of reasoning. The use of reading skills makes the language users depend on their communication skills. Reading comprehension is challenging as it requires the coordination of multiple linguistic and cognitive processes, word reading ability, working memory, inference generation, comprehension monitoring, vocabulary, and prior knowledge. Past studies revealed that there is gender difference in the use of language learning strategies. More studies were suggested to investigate gender differences when it comes to language learning difficulties; especially reading comprehension. This study explores the reading comprehension strategies among male and female language learners; specifically, the perception of top-down and bottom-up reading anxiety across gender as well as the perception of classroom reading comprehension across gender. This study uses quantitative design with a survey as the instrument. 30 respondents from social sciences faculty in a public university were randomly chosen for this study. For both top-down and bottom-up anxiety, this study has shown that generally, female respondents reported higher anxiety than male respondents. When it comes to classroom teaching, male respondents reported higher anxiety. Findings in this study has interesting pedagogical implications for the teaching and learning of reading comprehension.

The present study explores the effects of meta-cognitive strategies, working memory capacity (WMC), and syntactic awareness on Chinese EFL learners’ L2 reading comprehension. One hundred and sixty-seven Chinese college students who were enrolled in the required English class, aged from 19 to 21 years, participated in this study. A questionnaire related to meta-cognitive strategies, a reading span test, a syntactic knowledge test, and a reading comprehension test were administered to the participants to collect data. Descriptive statistics, one-way ANOVA, a correlation analysis, and a multiple regression were used to analyze the data. Results showed that there were significant differences in meta-cognitive strategy use, working memory capacity, and syntactic awareness among three groups of differing English reading abilities. Syntactic awareness was the most strongly correlated with reading comprehension. The result of a regression analysis indicated that meta-cogitation, WMC, and syntactic awareness all showed a statistically significant prediction for L2 reading comprehension. Accordingly, the results suggest that instruction for developing reading comprehension should prioritize syntactic awareness, and then focus on the activation of WMC together with the use of reading strategies for successful reading comprehension. From the results, some practical implications to effectively improve L2 reading comprehension are provided at the end.