The Effect of Virtual Influencers’ Appearance on Social Presence and Consumer Engagement: Does Animism Trump Anthropomorphism?

Recently, there has been a lot of interest in industry and academia in virtual influencers (VIs). This study aimed to augment the understanding of VI marketing by exploring the relationship between VI’s characteristics (i.e., their humanlikeness level and operator type), their social media post characteristics (i.e., emotional expression, use of pronouns, use of punctuation marks), and consumer engagement. The analysis of three popular VIs’ Instagram profiles and posts revealed that VIs with less humanlike appearances tend to exhibit stronger positive emotional expressions. Interestingly, the level of humanlikeness in appearance was not associated with VI's other post characteristics, suggesting other intrinsic factors (e.g., the VI’s character and virtual universe) may play a pivotal role. Whether a brand operates the VI or not made a statistically significant difference in the VI’s post characteristics. Assessment of user engagement metrics (i.e., number of likes and comments) showed that users prefer hyper-realistic VIs and VIs operated by non-brand agencies, underscoring the importance of perceived authenticity in the digital realm. The emotions expressed by VIs, along with their use of punctuation, were positively related to user engagement.

Virtual influencers (VIs) on e-commerce platforms are becoming increasingly popular, enhancing the consumer experience. This study examines the consumer–brand relationship (CBR) with VIs through the perspective of social presence. Data from 1041 e-commerce platform users (e.g., Douyin, RED, Weibo) were collected and analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). The findings reveal that both the visual and mental human-likeness of VIs significantly strengthen CBR, with social presence acting as a mediator. Additionally, the interaction between visual and mental human-likeness positively impacts social presence, which in turn enhances CBR. Moreover, consumers’ need for uniqueness moderates the relationship between social presence and CBR, providing valuable insights for virtual influencer strategies in e-commerce. This research suggests the feasibility of leveraging VI design both visually and mentally to capture new trends in developing effective virtual campaigns with digitization and metaverse technologies. This study extends the stream of research VIs use for interactive marketing, highlighting the role of parasocial relationships in interactive marketing. These findings can provide managers with a better understanding of VI design from both visual and mental aspects.

Short video platforms have problems with increased competition and low advertising conversion rates. Although social presence is closely related to consumer engagement, research regarding the impact of social presence on consumer engagement in short video-embedded advertisements is sparse. We developed a theoretical model, namely a social presence–flow experience–advertising avoidance–advertising engagement model, and explored the mechanism underlying advertising engagement from a psychological and behavioral perspective. The analysis of 563 short video users revealed that the model exhibited excellent explanatory power for advertising engagement (R2 = 41.3%). Social presence can increase consumers’ advertising engagement by enhancing flow experience and reducing advertising avoidance. Meanwhile, the flow experience, by diminishing advertising avoidance, generates a serial mediation effect between social presence and advertising engagement. This study emphasizes social presence’s applicability and influence mechanism in short video-embedded advertisements, a unidirectional information delivery. It provides new theoretical perspectives and practical advice for relevant practitioners.

The increased prevalence of social media has led brands to utilize influencers for product endorsements and influence consumer perceptions. Among these influencers, virtual influencers (VIs)—that is, computer‐generated influencers with a social media presence–have gained significant attention due to their substantial online following and greater engagement compared to human influencers. However, a research gap exists in understanding the impact of VIs on consumer response toward brands, particularly when consumers perceive VIs as human. To address this gap, this study draws upon anthropomorphism and expectation disconfirmation theories to investigate the effect of disclosing a VI's nonhuman nature on consumer trust in the brand. Additionally, the influence of culture on consumers' perceptions of VIs is explored. The study employs three within‐subject experimental designs, with two studies conducted in the United States (n = 75 and n = 101) and one in Brazil (n = 83). The findings reveal that the disclosure of a VI's nonhuman nature negatively affects the perceived anthropomorphism of the influencer, subsequently diminishing the credibility of the VI and impacting brand trust. This study contributes significantly to the consumer behavior literature by examining the unintended consequences of disclosing VIs' nonhuman nature on consumer perceptions. Furthermore, it highlights the potential role of culture, as the direct influence of disclosure on anthropomorphism is observed, but the indirect influence on brand trust is not supported among Brazilian consumers. Consequently, brands must reconsider the design of their own VIs or those they collaborate with, striving for a design that mitigates consumer suspicion avoiding the negative effects of disclosure.

This study investigates the impact of virtual influencers (VIs) on consumer engagement and purchase intention in social media marketing by examining how VIs’ marketing efforts and individuals’ tendencies for online social interaction influence engagement with VI-related content on social media. Additionally, it explores the role of influencer type (human vs. virtual) and characteristics (expertise and trustworthiness) in purchase intention. Through two empirical studies, the effectiveness of VIs was assessed: Study 1 established baseline effects and explored the influence of VI content on social media engagement (SME), while Study 2 investigated how the type of influencer (human vs. virtual) moderates the interactive effects between social media influencers’ characteristics (expertise and trustworthiness) and purchase intention. The findings indicate that VI content positively impacts SMEs and purchase intention, but the influencer type does not significantly explain the relationship between endorser characteristics and purchase intention. Our findings highlight that brands should assess VIs’ traits before integrating them into social media marketing strategies. Additionally, we provide insightful recommendations for fostering effective collaboration with VIs in marketing endeavors targeting consumers.

This study examines how AI-powered virtual influencers (VIs) encouraging green behavior among social media users. Drawing on the Computers-Are-Social-Actors (CASA) paradigm and integrating Source Attractiveness and Source Credibility models, this study proposes a framework that offers comprehensive insights into the psychological mechanisms through which virtual influencers (VIs) impact their followers’ pro-environmental intentions. An online survey collected 603 valid responses from users who had interacted with sustainability content shared by VIs. Social cues (anthropomorphism, warmth, and competence) and source credibility (attractiveness, homophily, authenticity, and expertise) positively influenced social presence and trust, which in turn shaped pro-environmental intentions. Environmental self-identity strengthens the relationship between social presence and pro-environmental intention but attenuates the effect of credibility on these intentions. These findings advance understanding of VIs’ role in sustainable behavior and offer actionable insights for designing VI-driven campaigns to foster greener consumer practices.

PurposeThis study aims to examine how virtual influencers (VIs) affect purchase intentions in tourism and hospitality e-commerce live streaming (THCLS) by focusing on the roles of VIs’ source credibility, trust in products, trust in VIs, emotional engagement, parasocial relationships and influencer–product congruence.Design/methodology/approachSurvey data from 416 active viewers of VIs in THCLS were analysed using partial least squares structural equation modelling.FindingsThis study highlights the importance of the VIs’ source credibility, which positively affects trust in the product, trust in VIs and emotional engagement. However, source credibility does not have a positive impact on parasocial relationships. Trust in products positively influences trust in VIs. Emotional engagement and trust in VIs significantly influence parasocial relationships, which, positively affects purchase intentions. Influencer–product congruence strengthens the link between parasocial relationships and purchase intentions but does not moderate the relationship between trust in VIs and purchase intentions. No significant gender differences were observed, although minor discrepancies were noted in the effect of trust in products on trust in VIs. The importance–performance map analysis revealed that parasocial relationships are the most important factor influencing purchase intentions, while influencer–product congruence has the highest performance, trust in products is the least important and VIs’ source credibility has the lowest performance.Practical implicationsThis study provides actionable insights for marketers leveraging VIs in the THCLS sector, emphasizing strategies to enhance VI credibility, foster parasocial relationships, ensure influencer–product congruence and adopt gender-neutral marketing approaches to effectively influence purchase intentions.Originality/valueThis study offers theoretical and practical insights into the role of VIs in THCLS, illuminating their impact on consumer behaviour and purchase intentions.

PurposeInfluencer marketing has become a pivotal strategy in modern interactive marketing, making it essential to understand the comparative effectiveness of human and virtual influencers (VIs) in driving consumer engagement. However, existing research presents mixed findings, which may stem from variations in the type of message influencers convey. As altering message appeal is a nearly zero-cost, easily implementable strategy, this study examines how the interaction between influencer type (virtual vs. human) and message appeal (rational vs. emotional) influences consumer engagement. Furthermore, we investigate the underlying mechanisms and boundary conditions that shape this relationship.Design/methodology/approachDrawing on persuasion and feeling-as-information theory, we conducted three experiments to test our hypothesis. Study 1 explored how influencer type affects engagement with rational versus emotional travel ads. Study 2, using a different experimental design in another interactive marketing context, replicated Study 1’s findings and further explored the underlying mechanisms of feeling of rightness. Study 3 demonstrated the moderating role of anthropomorphism such that endowing humanlike features on VI in using emotional appeal strategy increases consumer repost choice and purchase intention for the bar soap.FindingsThree experiments (total N = 1,137) demonstrated that VIs using rational appeals and human influencers using emotional appeals increased ad clicks (Study 1), boosted willingness to pay for the Ring Fit (Study 2) and enhanced post-sharing and purchase intention for bar soap (Study 3). This effectiveness is attributed to the matching effect, which enhances the feeling of rightness and thereby increases consumer engagement (Study 2). Notably, VIs can overcome their limitations in using emotional appeals when they are endowed with real-life experiences, showing the moderating role of anthropomorphism (Study 3).Originality/valueThe findings not only offer new insights that help reconcile conflicting perspectives on influencer effectiveness in the literature but also have practical implications for firms’ influencer marketing strategies and product promotional message strategies.

Traditional marketing has been affected by the rise of virtual influencers (VIs). Traditionally, products were marketed by celebrities or human influencers. Influencer marketing has been a strategy for connecting with audiences through credible and engaging social media figures and celebrities. This chapter explores the rise of VIs as they reshape the marketing landscape. Unlike human influencers, VIs offer unparalleled consistency, innovative engagement methods, and cost efficiency, revolutionizing marketing strategies across platforms like Instagram, TikTok, and virtual reality environments. This chapter also examines the rise of VIs, popular VIs, the cultural effects of VIs on Filipinos, popular VIs, and the ethical and operational implications of VIs. By integrating these insights, this chapter underscores how VIs exemplify digital disruption's transformative power, redefining traditional marketing practices while influencing the future of marketing and consumer engagement.

The application of artificial intelligence in the retail industry has exposed many innovation opportunities and significantly impacts consumer behavior. Based on the social presence, retailer innovativeness, and self‐determination theories, this study constructs an integrated and original framework for elucidating the influence mechanism of the social characteristics of anthropomorphic intelligent services (chatbots) on consumer behavioral intentions. An empirical study of Chinese consumers (n = 442) reveals the following: first, the social presence of chatbots exerts a direct and positive impact on retailer experience innovativeness and intimacy; second, retailer experiential innovativeness, intimacy, and sense of empowerment mediate the influence of the social presence of chatbots on consumers' behavioral intentions; third, the cute communication styles in the low‐level social presence are very conducive for promoting the relationships between social presence and experiential innovativeness. By improving the level of social presence, formal communication styles can play a key role in promoting relationships. Theoretically, this study contributes to the social presence theory by extending it to the interaction with retailer experiential innovativeness and exploring the chain‐like mediating role of experiential innovativeness, as well as the self‐determined satisfaction between the social presence and consumer behavior intentions. Furthermore, this study also examines how different chatbot communication styles moderate the influence of social presence on consumers' behavioral intentions, thereby revealing the differential effects and boundary conditions of chatbot social presence on consumer behaviors. These findings will offer retailers insights into consumers' psychological activities to practically design chatbots and conduct smart retail innovation activities.

The popularity of influencer marketing seems to be on the rise lately, particularly within the tourism sector, where it is being increasingly utilized with significant space for expansion. A novel aspect of this marketing strategy that remains relatively under the radar is virtual influencers (VIs). This study delved into the comparative effectiveness of human (HIs) versus VIs, a topic that has yet to be explored extensively. The results of this study revealed that both influencers (HIs and VIs) have a strong and positive impact on perceived trustworthiness (PT), customers' booking intention (CBI), perceived usefulness (PU), and social presence (SP). Moreover, the study highlighted the crucial role of PT, indicating a positive influence on CBI. PU was also shown to boost CBI significantly. However, the direct impact of SP on booking intentions did not present a statistically significant result. This study contributes significantly to the influencer marketing domain, offering promising insights and laying the groundwork for further exploration. Both theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

The application of virtual reality (VR) in health care has grown rapidly in China, where approximately half of the population is directly exposed to secondhand smoke (SHS). As VR headsets have become increasingly popular and short video platforms have incorporated 360° videos in China, new formats and opportunities for health campaigns about SHS have emerged. In a simulated environment of exposure to SHS, this study aims to explore the emotional and behavioral responses to enhanced social presence brought about by VR in contrast to flat-screen videos. It also aims to examine whether and to what extent video modality (360° video vs flat-screen video) and contextual cues (high threat vs low threat) influence psychometric and intentional variables among viewers. A total of 245 undergraduate and graduate students who were nonsmokers and from a large university in China participated in this study between October 2020 and January 2021. This study created 4 different versions of a SHS experience in a café with a 2 (360° video on a head-mounted display vs flat-screen display) × 2 (high threat vs low threat) experimental design. It developed and tested a path model examining the effects of experience modality and threat levels on social presence, emotions (anger and disgust), and eventually behavioral intentions (staying away and asking for help). We found that both video modality (P<.001) and threat level (P=.005) significantly influenced social presence, whereas the interaction of video modality and threat level did not have a statistically significant effect on social presence (P=.55). Negative emotions mediated the relationships between social presence and SHS-related self-protective behaviors. Specifically, anger positively predicted the intention to ask smokers to stop smoking through the waitress (P<.001). Disgust and fear both positively predicted the intention to stay away from the SHS environment (P<.001 for disgust; P=.002 for fear). This study explored the potential mediating mechanisms that influence individuals' responses to the risks of SHS in public areas. The results demonstrated that social presence and negative emotions are 2 important mediators that underlie the relationship between video modality and behavioral intention regarding SHS in a VR setting. These findings suggest that an immersive environment could be a better stimulator of anti-SHS emotions and behaviors than flat-screen videos.

Objective: The overall aim of this pilot study was to explore students’ perception of teaching, social, cognitive and learner presence within an RN to BSN asynchronous online nursing research course. Methods: This descriptive correlational study used an online survey. Students’ perceptions of learning effectiveness regarding group size and class size were assessed with the Revised Community of Inquiry (RCOI), which measures the dimensions of Teaching Presence (TP), Social Presence (SP), Cognitive Presence (CP), and Learner Presence (LP). Results: Among the total of 121 enrolled RN to BSN students, 67 students participated in this study (response rate of 55.4%). The findings of ANOVA indicated no statistical differences (p > 0.05) in learning effectiveness among the different group sizes. However, groups with 5 members showed the highest scores of RCOI total (M=149.5), TP (M=36.82), SP (M=35.25), and CP (35.57). In contrast, groups with 3 members showed the lowest scores of RCOI total (M=137.19), TP (M=33.21), and CP (M=32.32). Additionally, the findings of t-tests indicated no statistical differences ( p > .05) in learning effectiveness between the different group sizes. Conclusions: The findings of the current study imply that learning effectiveness was not associated with group sizes or class sizes. However, the findings suggest that the use of group collaboration promotes teaching, social, cognitive, and learner presence.

Purpose This research explores the effectiveness of luxury brand avatar marketing in virtual gaming environments, examining how social presence and avatar anthropomorphism influence consumer engagement. It investigates whether the symbolic appeal of luxury brands translates into virtual settings and enhances brand engagement under varying contextual conditions. Design/methodology/approach Three experimental studies were conducted using custom-designed video games to test the effects of luxury versus non-luxury avatar marketing. Study 1 examines the interaction between brand type and social presence in solo versus multiplayer gaming. Study 2 introduces avatar anthropomorphism as a moderator in low social presence settings. Study 3 replicates these findings with an alternative game design. Findings Luxury brand avatar marketing significantly enhances consumer engagement in high social presence environments (e.g. multiplayer games). In low social presence settings (e.g. solo games), luxury brands only outperform non-luxury brands when avatars are anthropomorphic, as human-like avatars simulate social interaction. Game immersion mediates this relationship, highlighting the importance of social dynamics and avatar design in virtual luxury branding. Originality/value This study advances signaling theory by demonstrating that luxury brand effectiveness in gaming environments depends on social presence and avatar anthropomorphism. It challenges assumptions that luxury branding seamlessly translates to digital spaces and contributes to brand gamification literature by emphasizing the role of virtual product design and multiplayer interaction. The findings provide actionable insights for luxury brands and game developers to strategically integrate avatar marketing and enhance brand engagement in virtual worlds.

Four independent variables, social Presence, ease of use, usability, and risk, significantly affect students' intentions to interact in online tutoring on the Website. Social Presence is the dominant variable influencing students' intentions to interact virtually. These findings bring some implications for the distance learning management team that adopts the Website as their media. Social presence factors affect online guidance and counseling. It is analyzed from the potential of technological development, which is the purpose of this study to see the effect of social presence on the implementation of online guidance-the method used is multiple linear regression analysis, where this study identifies independent variables that affect the dependent variable through multiple regression hypotheses with 80 respondents. This study found that perceived social presence, utility, usefulness, and opportunity significantly influenced behavioral intention on online guidance by increasing social presence. In addition, behavioral intention was observed as the most dominant variable affecting students' intention to interact in distance learning.