The effect of a 6-week plyometric training on agility, jump height, and dynamic balance in young artistic and rhythmic gymnasts

The aim of this study was to determine the impact of intensive training on adult final height in elite female rhythmic and artistic gymnasts. The study included 215 rhythmic gymnasts (RG) and 113 artistic gymnasts (AG). AG were below the 50th percentile, while RG were taller than average. Final adult height was lower than target height in AG, while in RG, it exceeded target height. AG started training earlier than RG (p<0.001) and reported lower intensity of training (p<0.001). RG were taller than AG, with higher target height, greater Δ final height-target height and lower body fat and BMI (p<0.001). Using multiple regression analysis, the main factors influencing final height were weight SDS (p<0.001), target height SDS (p<0.001) and age of menarche (p<0.001) for RG, and weight SDS (p<0.001) and target height SDS (p<0.001) for AG. In both elite female RG and AG, genetic predisposition to final height was not disrupted and remained the main force of growth. Although in elite RG genetic predisposition for growth was fully preserved, in elite female AG final adult height falls shorter than genetically determined target height, though within the standard error of prediction.

We studied 129 female rhythmic gymnasts (RG) and 142 female artistic gymnasts (AG) who participated in the 1999 Gymnastics World Championship for RG in Osaka, Japan, and the 1999 and 2001 Gymnastics World Championships for AG in Tianjin, China (n = 48), and Ghent, Belgium (n = 94), respectively. RG were taller than average, with a mean height SD score above the 50th percentile, whereas AG were relatively short, with a mean height SD score below the 50th percentile. Both RG and AG followed their respective reported target height SD score, which was above the 50th percentile for the RG and below the 50th percentile for the AG. The RG followed a growth pattern that was higher than their reported target height, whereas AG exhibited a negative growth pattern. RG and AG weighed less than the population mean, with the mean weight for age below the 50th percentile for both groups. RG were taller than AG (t = 17.15; P < 0.001), with a higher reported target height SD score (t = 6.44; P < 0.001), a greater Delta height-reported target height (t = 2.74; P < 0.001), and a lower mean body fat (t = -11.83; P < 0.001) and body mass index (t = -10.73; P < 0.001) than AG. AG started their training at an earlier age than RG (t = 4.13; P < 0.001). Using multiple regression analysis, actual height SD score was independently influenced positively by weight SD score for both RG (b = 0.421; t = 4.317; P < 0.001) and AG (b = 1.404; t = 16.514; P = <0.001), and by reported target height only for RG (b = 0.299; t = 3.139; P = 0.002), and negatively by body mass index only for AG (b = -0.80; t = -9.88; P < 0.001). In conclusion, in elite female AG, a deterioration of growth potential was observed, whereas in RG the genetic predisposition to growth was preserved.

Elite gymnasts are exposed to high levels of physical stress, during both childhood and adolescence, with significantly late maturation and high injury prevalence. Here, we compare the physiological characteristics of female gymnasts in 2 age groups: young (9-12 years) and adolescent (≥13 years) in 3 disciplines of competitive gymnastics. Participants' physiological characteristics will differ by age group and by gymnastic discipline. Cohort study. Level 2. The study included 274 gymnasts, aged 11.8 ± 1.9 years. Data collection included anthropometric measures, Tanner stage, and menarche age; ultrasound assessments were used to assess bone properties, including bone strength, skeletal age, and final-height prediction. Univariate analysis of variance showed age × discipline interactions for body mass index (BMI) percentiles (F(2, 266) = 4.379; P = 0.01), skeletal age (F(2, 241) = 3.808; P = 0.02), and final-height prediction (F(2, 240) = 3.377, P = 0.04). Moreover, in both age groups, artistic gymnasts exhibited significantly higher BMI percentiles than rhythmic gymnasts (P < 0.05). In the adolescent group, final-height prediction for rhythmic gymnasts was significantly greater than that of artistic gymnasts (P < 0.05). Finally, in adolescent gymnasts, regression lines showed that skeletal age was lower than chronological age (P < 0.05). Artistic gymnasts were shorter than rhythmic and acrobatic gymnasts. Despite similar BMI and body fat, maturity patterns, and training-volume history, artistic gymnasts had lower bone-strength than rhythmic and acrobatic gymnasts. Combined with their high-impact and intensive training, this could increase their risk of musculoskeletal injuries. The current study may help athletic trainers and medical teams define "norms" for different age groups and gymnastic disciplines, based on what may be expected during the athletes' early and late maturation. This knowledge can be used to modify, individualize, and optimize training programs.

Flexibility is the first connection between rhythmic and artistic gymnasts, but it is also motor ability that distinguishes them at the sporting level. The main goal of this research was to determine whether there was a significant difference in active and passive flexibility of the lower limbs among rhythmic and artistic gymnastics competitors. The sample of participants consisted of 18 gymnasts, out of which nine were rhythmic gymnasts and the other nine artistic gymnasts, from the junior and senior age category (13 to 18 years). In the research, the following tests were used to assess active and passive flexibility, constructed by the International Gymnastics Federation (FIG): front split with the help of the hand (FSWH), front split without hand (FSWOH), side split with the help of the hand (SSWH), side split without hand (SSWOH), back split ”penche” (BSP), back split with the help of the hand (BSWH) and forward-backward split between two blocks (FBS). In order to analyse the difference between the two groups of participants (rhythmic and artistic gymnasts) in flexibility tests Mann-Whitney U Test was used, the test for independent samples. To determine the difference between the dominant and non-dominant leg, Sign Test was used to see whether there was a statistically significant difference between the arithmetic means of the tests performed by the rhythmic and artistic gymnasts, with an error of p&amp;lt;.05. Results showed statistically significant difference between the rhythmic and artistic gymnasts in tests of active and passive flexibility. Differences are in the dominant leg, which was expected because each element is performed on the dominant leg.

The purpose of this study was to investigate and compare the passive joint range of motion (PROM) and muscle strength in prepubertal rhythmic gymnasts (RGs), artistic gymnasts (AGs), and a control group (CG) of the same age. A total of 54 prepubertal girls were divided into three groups: 18 RGs (age 11.14 ± 0.7, height 142.6 ± 5.81, and body mass 31.2 ± 3.63); 18 AGs (age 11.27 ± 0.99, height 139.6 ± 5.85, and body mass 31.7 ± 3.21), and 18 school girls who are defined as CG (age 10.55 ± 0.42, height 145.33 ± 6.95, and body mass 42.1 ± 8.21) participated in the study. All athletes were elites and participated in national competitions. The CG participated only in their school physical education program. Isokinetic peak torques were measured using an isokinetic dynamometer (Cybex II) at 60, 180, and 300°·sec-1. Body mass index was greater in the CG compared to RGs and AGs (p < 0.001). PROM in cervical extension in RG was significantly higher compared to the AG and CG (p < 0.001). The athlete groups, RG and AG, showed significantly greater PROM in knee flexion (p < 0.001), hip flexion (p < 0.001), and hip abduction (p < 0.05) compared to CG. PROM in hip flexion was different between the left and right leg in RGs. The relative muscle strength of the quadriceps in the RG and AG was significantly greater compared to CG (p < 0.001 and p < 0.01 respectively). Gymnastics training in prepubertal ages can improve neuromuscular function and increase the relative muscle strength. Therefore, it is essential to note that when evaluating children within the developmental ages, especially those involved in sports, the type of muscle strength to be assessed should be specified.

Prevalence and physical features associated with tendon, bone, and joint pain in young artistic, acrobatic, and rhythmic female gymnasts.

Injuries are common in both artistic and rhythmic gymnastics due to intense training, biomechanics, and previous injuries. Despite different apparatus and movement patterns, both disciplines pose a high injury risk. This study compared injury prevalence, types, affected body regions, and risk factors between artistic and rhythmic gymnasts. A retrospective survey was conducted in gymnastics clubs with 92 female gymnasts (39 artistic, 53 rhythmic), aged 7–24 years. Since the data were not normally distributed, the Mann-Whitney U-test was used. Artistic gymnasts had a significantly higher injury rate (2.95 per career) compared to rhythmic gymnasts (0.96; p < .01). The Kruskal-Wallis test showed no significant differences across athlete categories (p = .07), but training frequency (p < .001) and experience level (p < .001) influenced injury numbers. Post hoc tests revealed that gymnasts training five times per week reported more injuries. Chi-square tests showed that shoulder, wrist, elbow, and ankle injuries were more common in artistic gymnastics. Artistic gymnasts also required more intensive treatments. Most injuries occurred during training. The most frequent treatment was rest with cooling and creams, followed by physical therapy. Recovery time was longer in artistic gymnasts, with some taking over six months to return.

Balance, together with other motor qualities, plays an important role in the successful execution of specific gymnastic skills. However, it is also not clear whether different demands on dynamic balance and power produced by lower limb can be observed in sport-specific differences among gymnasts of various modalities. The question also is as to what extent isokinetic leg muscle strength contributes to anterior and posterior postural stability in gymnasts. Therefore, the aim of the study was i) to compare variables of dynamic balance and isokinetic leg muscle strength in rhythmic, artistic, and aerobic gymnasts, and ii) to investigate the relationship of reach distances in anterior, posteromedial, and posterolateral directions, as well as the composite score in the Y-balance test with an isokinetic muscle strength during knee extension and flexion at different velocities in female gymnasts of various disciplines. Altogether seven aerobic, five artistic, and six rhythmic gymnasts performed the Y-balance test and isokinetic leg muscle strength test at 60°/s, 180°/s, and 300°/s. Results showed significant between-group differences in the composite score in the Y-balance test of the dominant (F = 3.536, p = .041) and non-dominant symmetry (F = 4.804, p = .015). Similarly, average power produced during knee extension and knee flexion at 60°/s, 180°/s and 300°/s differed significantly among these groups (all at p˂0.05). In addition, there was a significant relationship between the composite score of the dominant limb symmetry and isokinetic dominant limb extension strength at 60°/s (r = .54), 180°/s (r = .87), and 300°/s (r = .84) in aerobic gymnasts. The composite score of the dominant limb symmetry was also associated with isokinetic dominant limb extension strength, albeit only at 60°/s in both artistic (r = .60) and rhythmic gymnasts (r = .55). Such between-group differences may be ascribed to their different demands on maintenance of balance under dynamic conditions and leg muscle power within their sport specializations. Taking into account significant association between the dominant limb symmetry and isokinetic dominant limb extension strength, it may be concluded that both muscle strength and fast speeds contribute to dynamic balance in adolescent gymnasts.

Gymnastics is a basic sport branch consisting of eight disciplines and is recommended to be taught to children at an early age. Our study aimed to evaluate the foot biomechanics and static plantar pressure of children aged 5-15 years who were performing rhythmic and artistic gymnastics. The study included 58 (19 Men/39 Women) child gymnasts and aged 5-15 years. Sociodemographic form, static plantar pressure analysis in bipedal position with pedobarography device, hallux valgus angle measurement (HVA), navicular drop test (NDT) and subtalar pronation angle measurement were performed respectively. The measurements were performed in the same way by an experienced expert. IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences Version 26.0 (SPSS inc, Chicago, IL, USA) statistical programme was used. Tests were analyzed pairwise with Pearson correlation (p ≤ 0.05). The mean age was 7.43±2.37 years, height 124.68±16.97 cm, weight 27.39±11.39 kg and body mass index (BMI) 16.99±3.22 kg/m2. There was no significant difference between weighted and unweighted in NDT results. In pedobarography analysis, hindfoot percentages were higher than forefoot percentages in static bipedal positions. A positive correlation was found between HVA and subtalar angles (p=0.00). In children performing artistic and rhythmic gymnastics, lateral ankle sprain may be observed due to a pronation tendency in subtalar angles. In addition, in the static bipedal position, distortions occurred in the bipedal static force center because the percentage of hindfoot pressure in plantar pressures was higher than the forefoot. Studies with foot-ankle exercises are needed for these.

The article presents data on the study of the timing of the first menarche in 143 athletes of puberty age - representatives of various sports (artistic gymnastics - 15 athletes, rhythmic gymnastics - 14, volleyball - 19, basketball - 17, cycling - 13, rowing and canoe - 12, freestyle wrestling - 15, taekwondo - 14, boxing - 13, athletics (middle distance running) - 11 people) in comparison with the general population age and sex group of 145 people. The relationship between the timing of the formation of the ovarian-menstrual cycle in female athletes and the time of starting sports was established. The dynamics of the formation of the ovarian-menstrual cycle has been determined. It was revealed that in each of the groups presented, the female athletes had an extended period for the debut of menarche and the onset of the establishment of the ovarian-menstrual cycle. The most influencing on violations of the debut of menarche and the formation of ovarian-menstrual cycle among athletes are such sports as artistic and rhythmic gymnastics, rowing and canoeing. The time of the beginning of sports activities and the time of the onset of menarche in the aggregate are an etiological factor that causes disturbances in the dynamics of the formation of the ovarian-menstrual cycle and a malfunction in the reproductive system of athletes in general and is the result of the body's adaptation to the physical and psychological stresses corresponding to these sports.

The first aim of this paper was to investigate if expertise in rhythmic gymnastics influences postural performance even in an easy non-specific task such as bipedal posture. Rhythmic gymnastics is a unique female sport which encompasses aspects of both artistic gymnastics and ballet and includes the use of a small apparatus (rope, hoop, ball, clubs and ribbon). Most previous studies have shown that expertise achieved by artistic gymnasts and dancers improves postural steadiness only in the situations for which those athletes are trained. Literature has not yet compared rhythmic gymnasts to other athletes in terms of their postural strategies. Hence, the study presented herein tested a group of high level rhythmic gymnasts and a group of female university students, trained in other sports, in the bipedal posture under eyes open and closed conditions. A force platform was used to record body sway. (1) Distance from the centre of sway, (2) lateral and (3) antero-posterior displacements were analyzed in time and frequency domains. Comparing the two groups, it was found that rhythmic gymnasts had better strategies than students in simple postural tasks, especially in lateral directions and in the period from 0.05 to 2 s. The most interesting finding in this study is that rhythmic gymnastics training seems to have a direct effect on the ability to maintain bipedal posture, which may confirm the "transfer" hypothesis of rhythmic gymnastics expertise to bipedal postural sway, especially in medio-lateral displacements. This finding has never been reported in previous studies on artistic gymnasts and ballet dancers. Furthermore, the present study confirmed the visual dependence of all the athletes, irrespective of their disciplines, in their postural trials.

We compared 35 prepubertal girls, 9 artistic gymnasts and 13 rhythmic gymnasts with 13 nonphysically active controls to study the effect of gymnastics on bone and muscle mass. Lean mass, bone mineral content and areal density were measured by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry, and physical fitness was also assessed. The artistic gymnasts showed a delay in pubertal development compared to the other groups (p<0.05). The artistic gymnasts had a 16 and 17 % higher aerobic power and anaerobic capacity, while the rhythmic group had a 14 % higher anaerobic capacity than the controls, respectively (all p<0.05). The artistic gymnasts had higher lean mass (p<0.05) in the whole body and the extremities than both the rhythmic gymnasts and the controls. Body fat mass was 87.5 and 61.5 % higher in the controls than in the artistic and the rhythmic gymnasts (p<0.05). The upper extremity BMD was higher (p<0.05) in the artistic group compared to the other groups. Lean mass strongly correlated with bone mineral content (r=0.84, p<0.001), and multiple regression analysis showed that total lean mass explained 64 % of the variability in whole body bone mineral content, but only 20 % in whole body bone mineral density. Therefore, recreational artistic gymnastic participation is associated with delayed pubertal development, enhanced physical fitness, muscle mass, and bone density in prepubertal girls, eliciting a higher osteogenic stimulus than rhythmic gymnastic.

The purpose of this study was to assess dietary intake and body composition of prepubescent girls competing in 3 aesthetic sports (artistic and rhythmic gymnastics and ballet). Because physiological demands of ballet training are similar to those in other aesthetic sports, ballet dancers were, for the purpose of this study, regarded as athletes. The sample consisted of 39 athletes (median age, 11 years, range 9-13) and 15 controls (median age, 11 years, range 10-12). Dietary intake was assessed using a quantitative food frequency questionnaire, and body composition, by means of anthropometry. There was no significant difference in total energy intake between groups, but there was a significant difference in energy substrate distribution. Artistic gymnasts reported significantly higher carbohydrate and lower fat contribution to total energy (57% +/- 6% and 29% +/- 5%, respectively) than rhythmic gymnasts (48% +/- 6% and 36% +/- 5%), ballet dancers (51% +/- 4% and 34% +/- 3%), or controls (51% +/- 5% and 34% +/- 4%). Relative to body weight, artistic gymnasts reported higher intake of carbohydrates (9.1 +/- 4.2 g/kg) than rhythmic gymnasts (5.6 +/- 3.1 g/kg), ballet dancers (6.6 +/- 2.5 g/kg), or controls (5.4 +/- 1.9 g/kg). Artistic gymnasts also had the lowest body-fat percentage among the groups. In all the groups mean reported daily intakes of most nutrients were higher than the current daily recommended intakes. The exceptions were dietary fiber and calcium. The proportion of athletes with an inadequate reported intake was highest for phosphorus (33%), followed by vitamin A and niacin (18%) and zinc (13%).

GYMNASTICS AT OLYMPIC GAMES&#x0D; &#x0D; In 2018, The Science of Gymnastics Journal has reached the first decade of existence! We must celebrate, as it is among the few scientific journals specific to one sport!&#x0D; We applaud its 10th anniversary with this special issue for October: Gymnastics at Olympic Games.&#x0D; Rio 2016 has gone, with many memories to recall, the exuberance performance of Simone Biles and Kohei Uchimura in women’s and men’s Artistic Gymnastics; Margarita Mamun in Rhythmic Gymnastics; and Uladzislau Hancharou and Rosanna Maclennan in women’s and men’s Trampoline. They were crowned absolute queens and kings, although there are many others who exhibited their best too.&#x0D; Gymnastics has been growing and evolving at each Olympic Cycle, new skills and combinations abound, and gymnasts seem to have no limits!&#x0D; However, this evolutionary trend in Gymnastics is partly owed to the science, and the gymnastics’ community knows well gymnasts could not reach that far without the support of science.&#x0D; This special edition adds 12 articles to the science of gymnastics from researchers of Brazil, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Germany, Portugal, Slovenia and the United States of America, who cover a variety of topics.&#x0D; Maja Pajek discusses the influence of rules’ changes on the trend of higher difficulties and gymnasts’ specialization in Artistic Gymnastics, while investigating the performance of all-around medalists at individual apparatus finals.&#x0D; Ivan Čuk and Karmen Šibanc present the history of the development of Olympic Games all-around medallists and their success in reaching the podium on individual apparatus in Men’s Artistic Gymnastics.&#x0D; Ivana Montandon and Myrian Nunomura explored the experiences of older gymnasts (over 20 years of age) and the factors that contributed to the prolongation of their sports career in the high level of Women’s Artistic Gymnastics in Portugal.&#x0D; William Sands, Steven Murray, Jeni McNeal, Cindy Slater, and Michael Stone conducted an extended and updated analysis of the sizes trends of U.S. female Olympic artistic gymnasts including the 2012 and 2016 Olympic Games.&#x0D; Flavio Bessi and Jan Pfeifer attempt to set a viable classification system to categorize the rotation habits of high-level artistic gymnasts in the Women’s Individual All Around finalists at the Olympic Games Rio 2016.&#x0D; Catarina Leandro analyzed the evolution of the apparatus difficulty in the Rhythmic Gymnastics in two Olympic cycles, as an attempt to identify eventual factors that could contribute to the improvement of performance in competition.&#x0D; Eliana Toledo, Mateus Oliveira, Maria Letícia Scarabelim and Bianca Assumpção analyzed the impact of the Rhythmic Gymnastics Code of Points (2013-2016) by allowing vocal music in routines, at the Rio 2016 Olympic Games.&#x0D; Laurita Schiavon and Bruna Locci analyzed the perspectives of Brazilian gymnasts on the experience of participating in the Olympic Games in the Women’s Artistic Gymnastics competition (1980-2004), using oral history in a qualitative research approach.&#x0D; Caroline Molinari, Vitor Costa, Kamau Monteiro and Myrian Nunomura analyzed the Brazilian Women’s Artistic Gymnastics team participation over the last four cycles (2004-2016) in order to identify and discuss the factors associated to the results and contributions to the development of this sport in the country.&#x0D; Marco Bortoleto, Paulo Carrara and Murilo Roveri analyzed the participation of the Brazilian trampoline gymnastics in the main international events as the World Championships and the Olympic Games.&#x0D; William Sands and Olyvia Donti characterized and analyzed the durations of careers of U.S. elite female gymnasts who had qualified for Olympic Games and World Championships teams and compare these with the team rank from 1936 to 2016.&#x0D; Sunčica Delaš Kalinski, Petra Mandić Jelaska and Almir Atiković examined the relative age effect (RAE) among Women’s and Men’s Artistic Gymnastics in the elite international gymnasts who competed at Olympic Games.&#x0D; After hosting the Olympic Games in our country (Brazil), we are very pleased as guest editors for this special issue. It was a unique opportunity to work with researchers from different countries and fields of study, and to realize how science can support the many gaps still to fulfil in the world of gymnastics. Articles also incited our reflection and foster much thought.&#x0D; We hope you will enjoy every article presented as we did.&#x0D; Special Guest Editors:&#x0D; Laurita Marconi Schiavon&#x0D; Myrian Nunomura

El objetivo del trabajo fue describir y comparar las características físicas y antropométricas de 25 gimnastas pertenecientes al grupo de tecnificación de la Federación Extremeña de Gimnasia. Estas gimnastas fueron clasificadas según modalidad gimnástica: artística femenina (GAF) (n=13) y gimnasia rítmica (GR) (n=12). Las variables dependientes incluyen valoraciones del porcentaje graso, a través de una báscula electrónica de columna con tallímetro (SECA 220cm); perímetros corporales, a través de un plicómetro (Holtain); diámetros y pruebas específicas de flexibilidad, a través de cinta métrica (CM 3m); frecuencia cardíaca, a través del test de Ruffier y uso de pulsómetro (Polar F6); fuerza isométrica del tren inferior, donde se utilizó una célula de carga (SSMAJ 5000N), y la capacidad de salto, a través de una plataforma de contacto (Lafayette CVP A73). Los resultados concluyen que GAF obtiene mejor resultado en las pruebas de flexibilidad (p&lt;.05). Además, el grupo GR cuanto menor porcentaje graso posee mayor capacidad de salto SJ (r=-.774; p&lt;.01) y CMJ (r=-.600; p&lt;.05). En cambio, el grupo GAF cuanto mayor índice de masa corporal menor es su flexibilidad (p&lt;.01). Se concluye que existen diferencias en composición corporal y pruebas físicas entre las modalidades gimnásticas femeninas de artística y rítmica, además de encontrar relaciones entre el rendimiento de dichas pruebas y variables antropométricas. Palabra clave: gimnasia, características antropométricas, flexibilidad, fuerza isométrica, salto.Abstract: The aim of our research was to describe the physical and anthropometric characteristics of 25 gymnasts from the talent identification program of the Extremeña Gymnastics Federation. Subjects were classified according to their specialty: women‘s artistic gymnastic (WAG) and rhythmic gymnastics (RG). The dependent variables include body fat percentage through an electronic scale column with stadiometer (SECA 220cm); body circumferences through a plicometer (Holtain); body diameters and specific tests of flexibility through a tape (CM 3m); a heart rate through Ruffier test and a heart rate monitor (Polar F6); isometric strength of lower extremities through a load cell (SSMAJ 5000N); and jumping ability through a contact mat (Lafayette CVP A73). The results concluded that the WAG group got the best results in flexibility tests (p&lt;.05). Also, the RG group had lower body fat percentage and greater SJ jump ability (r=-.774; p&lt;.01) and CMJ (r=-.600; p&lt;.05). However, the WAG group showed a negative relation between body mass index and flexibility (p&lt;.01). We conclude that there are differences in body composition and physical tests between the specialties/styles of women’s artistic gymnastics and female rhythmic gymnastics; we also found relationships between the performance of such tests and anthropometric variables.Key words: gymnastics, anthropometric characteristics, flexibility, isometric strength, jump.