The Eastern Christian Tradition in Modern Russian Thought and Beyond

This chapter considers two little-known Arabic Gospel books in Cambridge University Library, with a view to considering the transfer or 'translation' of Gospel illustration from Greek into Arabic. One of the manuscripts, Cambridge University Library MS Gg. 5.33, reuses Greek Gospel illustrations directly. The MS Gg. 5.33, shows the adoption of Constantinopolitan Byzantine miniatures of c. 1100 into an Arabic Gospel book of known textual lineage in 1272 ad. The illustrations of the other, MS Add. 1860, were arguably painted by an Arab Christian artist, absorbing Greek and other eastern Christian traditions at the same time as making the Arabic tradition its own. The MS Add. 1860, shows the actual process of collation. This 'work in progress', exposed visually through the illustrations, demonstrates that the text has been properly researched and depends on its forebears in Greek, Coptic and Syriac.Keywords: Arabic Gospel books; Byzantine miniatures; Cambridge university library; eastern Christian traditions; Greek

The Martial as the Mystical: Taekwondo as Orthodox Christian Contemplative Practice Brian Butcher (bio) INTRODUCTION This article explores the potential for interpreting taekwondo as an Orthodox Christian contemplative practice. Certainly it is not an obvious connection given the disparate origins of the Korean martial art and the various Eastern Christian traditions. Yet, viewing the former in light of the latter seems both viable and valuable. Taekwondo is currently the most popular martial art in the world, exceeding seventy million practitioners in over two hundred countries; it is also a core sport in the Olympic Games. Eastern Christians around the world train and compete in taekwondo at all levels. Even so, to what extent is the distinctive ethos of Orthodox spirituality generally amenable to the practice of martial arts? Further, how do the specific characteristics of taekwondo favor its integration into an Eastern Christian Weltanschauung? BACKGROUND Such questions invite engagement with a lively conversation currently taking place concerning the place of sport within Christian spirituality.1 In A Brief Theology of Sport, Lincoln Harvey provides an adroit reading of the historical ambivalence of the church towards sport, including European martial arts. Saint Paul made conspicuous use of multiple athletic metaphors, contending, “For while bodily training is of some value, godliness is of value in every way, as it holds promise for the present life and also for the life to come” (1 Tim. 4:8 English Standard Version). Nevertheless, the Christian tradition has been reluctant to affirm a “full-bodied” appreciation of sport. Harvey observes that a dissonant chord resonates, whether one sounds out the New Testament, the patristic period, the Middle Ages or the Reformation. This chord results from three “notes”: the modest use of sport as a source for the rhetoric of Christian discipleship, or even as a practical tool for bodily health (“instrumentalism”); the critique of sport as marred by pagan associations, conducive to the inflammation of the passions at best and idolatry at worst (“opposition”); and a reluctant approbation of sport as an intractable dimension of human experience which had to be tolerated, and might even be co-opted (“popularity”).2 Harvey’s “historical soundings,” particularly the ambiguous approach of the [End Page 197] church to the jousting tournaments of medieval knights, invite reflection on how one might approach taekwondo as a sport similarly characterized by martial play. Click for larger view View full resolution Adriano Biriba © 2017 João Saidler Fotografia. Following his review of the relevant history, Harvey elaborates an original theoretical paradigm. It is one that inspires the present probing of “the martial as the mystical” (although the author does not himself proceed in this direction). His thesis is that sport can be fruitfully conceived of as a “liturgical celebration of contingency,” as an activity which enables people to have a communal experience of gratuitousness. The uniqueness of sport consists in its being “autotelic,” such as serving no purpose but itself (namely, the arbitrary internal aims of any given game). Sports are played, as we like to say, “just for fun,” even if they often leave numerous personal and social goods in their wake.3 In response to his recognition of the need for further thought on the matter, I would argue that martial arts, in contrast, can be seen as occupying a distinct space on the margins of sport, between sports themselves and certain cardinal activities which lie beyond it. Taekwondo as “played” within the Olympics, for example, certainly fulfills Allen Guttmann’s definition of sport, which Harvey cites approvingly: “a regulated, physical contest that serves its own ends.” Nonetheless, its distinct provenance and purpose are belied by what actually transpires. Consider that while it is a ball that is kicked (or head-butted) in soccer; or bumped, smashed and blocked in volleyball; hit in baseball (with a stick); or thrown and caught [End Page 198] in football, it is other people who are the object of such actions in martial arts and this reveals that these pursuits lack the element of arbitrariness characteristic of sport. In some quarters, like the Korean military, taekwondo is still officially practiced as a preparation for actual combat; in other quarters its primary end is physical...

Although at first sight Eastern Christianity is not associated with Africa, the African continent has shaped the establishment and development of three of the four main Eastern Christian traditions. Through a sociological lens, we examine the identity of the above African churches, focusing on the socio-historical entanglements of their religious and ethnic features. Firstly, we study the identity of the Coptic Orthodox Church, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, and the Eritrean Orthodox Church belonging to Oriental Orthodoxy. We focus on these African churches—and their diasporas in Western countries—as indigenous Christian paths in Africa. Secondly, we examine the identity of Africans and African-Americans within Eastern Orthodoxy. We consider both to have some inculturation issues within the Patriarchate of Alexandria and the development of an African-American component within Orthodoxy in the USA. Thirdly, we analyze the recent establishment and identity formation of African churches belonging to Eastern-rite Catholic Churches. In short, we aim to elaborate an overview of the multiple identities of African churches and one ecclesial community in Eastern Christianity, and to compare diverse sociological entanglements between religious and ethnic traits within them. A fruitful but neglected research subject, these churches’ identities appear to be reciprocally shaped by their own Eastern Christian tradition and ethnic heritage.

The article explores the ethnomental dimensions of the educational process within Eastern Christianity. It examines the historical context of the issue by substantiating the factors influencing the formation of ethnomental characteristics among different nations and highlights the role of education in preserving and transmitting the cultural traditions and values of Eastern Christianity. The study analyzes the perspectives of prominent scholars of religion regarding the role of religious and theological education in contemporary educational practices and the broader cultural landscape of the Ukrainian community. The article emphasizes that, within the framework of Eastern Christianity, the ethnomental aspects of religious cognition are considered through key interrelations: religion and education, religion and knowledge, faith and reason. In the traditions of Eastern Christianity, particularly in Byzantine, Orthodox, Armenian, and other Eastern Churches, education has always been closely linked to religion. The educational process was aimed at integrating knowledge into an individual’s worldview system, orienting them toward the moral and ethical principles of Christianity.A crucial role in this process was played by theological education, which, within the Eastern Christian tradition, focused on an in-depth understanding of the Holy Scriptures and the Sacraments. The study of theology was not limited to mere intellectual analysis; rather, it served as a foundation for shaping confessionally determined life orientations. The findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the worldview processes unfolding at the intersection of religion, education, and the formation of national identity.

Eastern Orthodox Christianity has developed a wide variety of theories and practices of meditation. Among these, this chapter covers the contemplation of sins, the recitation of the Jesus prayer, hesychasm, and the contemplation of Divine Light. This latter form of meditation, where God’s uncreated Light is revealed to the individual, is particularly important in the Eastern Christian tradition, as it is linked to theosis, the human capacity to seek and reach divinization. This is not only important as an individual goal but also a key theological notion in Eastern Christianity. The chapter ends by considering the present interest in meditation practices within this tradition.

Abstract. The article is devoted to the idea of freedom of conscience, the processes of developing its understanding in the Middle Ages, the opposition of various approaches, which are represented by thinkers of the Western and Eastern Christian tradition. These traditions were formed and developed within the framework of interpretive assessments of the relationship between the state and the church, known as Caesaropapism and Papоcaesarism. The peculiarities of Western Christian and Eastern Christian approaches to issues of freedom of conscience, which were formed by the nature of state power and its relations with the church, are analyzed. The Catholic understanding of relations was based on the independence of the church from the state, on its freedom, on the opposition of the spiritual and the earthly, on the supremacy of the former over the latter. It is claimed that the Roman Catholic Church has always claimed complete control over the secular state. According to the Orthodox view, the "spiritual and secular" should be integrated into one "symphonic" system with the leading role of the state. The church "gave its freedom" to the Caesars.
 The mechanism of the emergence of religious alternatives to the official teachings of the church, in particular heresies, sectarianism, schism, which served as a breeding ground for the emergence of religious freedom, freedom in the church. The role of the rationalist and anti-church component, philosophical and theological concepts, which were determined by a significant increase in scientific knowledge and the development of philosophical teachings, which also led to ideas of freedom of conscience, is emphasized. During this period, the genesis of the idea of freedom of conscience was played by the substantiation of the idea of human rights, in particular, the right to freedom of conscience and religion.
 The Middle Ages are presented as a specific era, which is associated with previous periods in the intellectual - philosophical and theological - understanding of freedom of conscience, in which despite all the negative socio-political, religious processes, persecution of freethinkers, formed principles of freedom of conscience and theoretical justification future paradigm. During this period, it was mainly about freedom of religious conscience, about the freedom of the church, about conscience, freedom of will, and not about freedom of conscience. It was important to substantiate the idea of the right of the autonomous mind, the doctrine of "natural light", the distinction between the concepts of "sacred" and "secular". At the same time, freedom of religious conscience can be said only for Christian believers, all others - infidels, "schismatics", heretics - were outlawed, society considered them as enemies of the state and the church.
 Heretical movements, which originated in the bosom of the Christian church and were determined by the context and events of the Middle Ages, became the environment where the ideas of freedom of conscience, including freedom of religious conscience, religious tolerance received "energy" for their development and manifestation as a public demand.

Spirituality in a European Context Philip Sheldrake (bio) The idea for a special "European" issue of Spiritus came from the Editor and my fellow members of the Editorial Board. On a purely practical level, this collection of essays seeks to expand the horizons of the journal beyond its predominantly North American base and to acknowledge an increasingly global readership. On a more theoretical level, to explore a distinctively European perspective on Christian spirituality underlines the inherently contextual and culturally specific nature of all spirituality. This counters any tendency to understand "spirituality" as a single, fixed, timeless, and placeless entity above and beyond the plurality of actual human narratives. The essays in this issue do not embrace a complete European perspective because geographically, culturally, and religiously Europe is such a diverse reality. In practice, all of the contributors are currently based in Western European universities and schools of theology, although one is originally from Greece. Religiously, the contributors represent the three major families of European Christian spirituality: Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and the Churches of the Reformation. I am not going to attempt a comparison between European spirituality and the spiritual character of other parts of the world. What I want to offer is some background to the contemporary European situation as it impacts on religious identity and approaches to spirituality, and to summarize a few key characteristics of European spirituality today. I will include some specific remarks about the British situation. Then toward the end, I will introduce the individual essays themselves. Before describing the contemporary flavor of European spirituality, a number of background issues must be outlined. In my opening sentence, I placed the word "European" in quotation marks for a reason. "Europe" and "European" are contested realities both geographically and culturally—and nowadays also religiously. To many people, Europe and its constituent countries are currently suffering from a crisis of identity. The reasons are complex, but some are particularly relevant to the spiritual climate. First, to the consternation of the traditional and self-described members of the European family, the collapse of the Soviet bloc revealed a new range [End Page 1] Click for larger view View full resolution Dark Crucifixion © Joachim Brink of countries in Eastern Europe, such as Poland or Romania, who not only see themselves once again as geographically and culturally European but also demand membership of the European Union (EU) and the freedom to move to and work within Western European countries. Until recently, this economic and increasingly political association of states had been an exclusively Western European club of financially advanced countries. Not only is "Europe" now unequivocally more culturally diverse, but the question of specifically religious identity has become an issue. Apart from immigration to the West from places like Russia, several new member countries of the EU are predominantly Eastern Orthodox or have significant Orthodox populations. Until their accession to the EU, only one country, Greece, was mainly Orthodox. As a result, the Eastern Christian tradition, including its spirituality, can no longer be seen as a tropical luxuriance represented in the vast majority of EU countries by small [End Page 2] and culturally marginal groups of exiles or immigrants. Eastern Christianity nowadays must be seen as part of the European religious and spiritual mainstream. This reality is expressed by the inclusion in this issue of Spiritus of a contribution by an Orthodox theologian. Second, the status of Islam is a controversial question in relation to Europe's specifically Christian identity. In the aftermath of European colonialism, some Western countries, notably France, The Netherlands, and the United Kingdom, have over the last fifty years attracted immigrant populations from former colonies that include significant numbers of Muslims. Now, countries aspiring to future EU membership include Macedonia (formerly part of Yugoslavia) with a substantial Muslim minority, Albania with a Muslim majority, and Turkey which, while constitutionally a secular state, is ninety-nine percent Muslim. This fact presents a significant challenge to simple notions of European religious and cultural identity. Now, some leading Western politicians question whether Turkey is truly European. Turkey has for many years been treated as a quasi-part of Europe (although only three percent of the country lies geographically in Europe...

This chapter considers two possible directions of dialogue between the Western and Eastern Christian traditions in the modern world. First, it presents a perspective on the development of sophiology in contemporary philosophical and theological studies developed in the West. Neopatristic synthesis and sophiology (developed in the school of the so-called religious-philosophical renaissance) are most productively considered not as two disconnected and antagonistic projects, but as complementary towards each other. Moreover, the founders of Neopatristic synthesis, including Georges Florovsky, themselves drew on the work of one of the most prominent representatives of sophiology, Sergius Bulgakov. This chapter also illuminates the creative dialogue between Russian religious thought and Japanese Zen Buddhism. We find an example of this comparative study in the work of the American twentieth-century monk Thomas Merton, who took a keen interest in Russian Eastern Christian philosophy, literature, and mysticism. Another illustration is found in the thought of Sergey Horujy, contemporary Russian thinker and founder of synergistic anthropology. Horujy not only studied patristic thought, but also was engaged in research on Eastern religions.

This volume offers original insights into the religious transformations taking place in postsocialist western Ukraine. Applying a cognitive theory based on two modes of religiosity, the doctrinal and the imagistic, Vlad Naumescu reveals the mechanisms of reproduction and change that make the local eastern Christian tradition a living tradition of faith. He combines rich ethnographic materials with historical and theological sources to depict a religion in equilibrium between the two modes, maintaining revelation at the core of its doctrinal corpus. He argues that religion is a potential source for social change that empowers people to act upon reality and transform it. With his innovative exploration of the dynamics of an eastern Christian tradition, Naumescu makes a major contribution to the emerging anthropology of Christianity as well as to studies of postsocialism. Vlad Naumescu is an adjunct professor in social anthropology at the Central European University, Budapest. In 2003-2006 he was a doctoral student at the Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology, Halle/Saale, Germany.

The Eastern Christian tradition is filled with theological and spiritual riches. In Passions of the Soul, Rowan Williams opens up the great classics of Eastern Christian writing to show how it can help us to understand and cope with the ups and downs of modern life. With compelling and illuminating insight, he shows the cost of living in a culture that is theologically and philosophically undernourished, working with a diminished and trivialized picture of the human self. The Eastern tradition teaches us how to develop our self-knowledge and awareness, so that we can relate to the world without selfish illusions. Only then can we be ready for our eyes to be opened to God, and avoid destructive patterns of behaviour. Only in this way can we understand the kind of people we need to become.

This article is devoted to the problem of determination of the actual age of the oldest multi-tiered Ukrainian icons of the Passion of Christ. The article describes examples of such images in Western and Eastern Christian traditions. In particular iconography of Eastern Christian ancient icons on the Passion of Christ and the are studied, including Milan diptych of the V century, Byzantine icon depicting the Passion of Christ of the third quarter of the XIV century from the museum of the Monastery of Vlatadon in Thessaloniki and two Novgorod icons-tablets of the XV century from the collection of Novgorod State United Museum Reserve. The author notes small sizes and common iconographic programs of the works among features of such images. Art works of western Christian art after the separation of the Church present special interest to this study. It was noted that big complex figured Crucifixes painted on wood and developed by the silhouette shape as well as compositions of the crucified Christ, coupled with scenes of the Passion on the sides of stamps became popular in Italy and the Balkans starting from the XII century. Crucifixes of the ХІІ – ХІІІ centuries that originate from Toscana were studied among the latest samples and common features of these works of art and Byzantine orthodox images were discovered. A new type of multi-tiered icon of the Passions, the main field of which holds a big picture of the Crucifixion with scenes of the Passion of Christ on both sides of it, starting from the Entrance into Jerusalem to the Descent into hell is considered as an interesting phenomenon in Western European painting of the XIII century. The icon by Duccio 1308-1311 for the main altar of the cathedral in Siena (Italy) is such work of art. Among the features of the image the author marks the large size of the work, extensive iconographic program consisting of 26 subjects, imitation of Byzantine artistic traditions. This principle of depicting of Passion of Christ with the Crucifixion of in the middle was widespread in large multi-tiered icons of other schools, in particular, in Ukrainian school. Images of the Passion of Christ in Ukrainian church painting were applied in mural painting from the XI century, later they were used in the figurative and symbolic systems of iconostasis on the holiday tier and from the second third of the XVII century they were applied on the top tier depicting the Passion of Christ. Large multi-tiered icons depicting the Passion of Christ that were placed on the north wall became popular also in the churches in Western Ukraine. Ukrainian multi-tiered icons of the Passion of Christ are distinguished by complex iconography depicted with a large number of subjects (up to 25 scenes), supplemented by apocryphal sources, these icons are large in size (about 2.5 x 2 m). Bright creativity of craftsmen, icon painters that added touching details from real life to the Gospel narratives was brightly reflected in these works. The oldest Ukrainian multi-tiered icons depicting the Passion of Christ that have survived to this day are the icon from Zdvyzhen village in Lemki region (collection of the Lviv National Museum), the icon from village of Trushevychi of Starosambirski district, Lviv region and the icon from the village of Mihova, Starosambirski district, Lviv region (collection of the Lviv National Museum). The determination of the actual age of these works was made in the 60’s of the XX century and the icon from Zdvyzhenya (XV c.) was recognized as the oldest one. The author analyzes the iconographic image of the Passion of Christ from Zdvyzhenya. The author denotes the compositional features of multi-tiered icons, selection of subjects and reveals signs of Western influences such as assimilation of certain elements of Western iconography. Particular attention is paid to the central story, the Crucifixion, in which the following borrowings of Western religious art of the Renaissance era have been found: the thieves are not nailed to the crosses and attached to them, the robbers had broken tibia, Angel and demons that take the souls of the executed are present on both sides of Christ and etc. In Catholic works some of these elements of the image of the Crucifixion scenes appear only in the XV century as an expression of new religious interpretations of the story. So their active use by folk artists in the Orthodox icon of the XV century during the period of tough confrontation between the two churches was impossible. Iconographic hallmarks scheme of Zdvyzhenya icon located on the lower tier supports this statement. In terms of attribution this image is a kind of synthesis of two different iconographers – Orthodox Do not weep for me, Mother and Catholic Resurrection (Rise of the Tomb of Christ). As Ukrainian works of art prove this iconography of Westernorigin began to be used in the Orthodox images only starting from the second half of the XVI century. Iconographic analysis of the oldest work of art among Ukrainian multi-tiered icons depicting the Passion of the Christ, such as icons from Zdvyzhen village prove that this work previously dated as the XV century could be created only in the XVI century, probably in the first half of the XV century. Thus, the more recent works, icons from villages of Trushevych and Mihova were created not earlier than in the middle of the XV І century.

The purpose of this essay is to retrieve some insights from the early Christian tradition and from recent Eastern Orthodox thought about the role and purpose of the natural order within the Christian economy of salvation, exploring the Christological, as well as the anthropological dimension of the deification of the cosmos. The first part of the essay will explore the Chalcedonian reading of the natural order developed by Maximos the Confessor in the Mystagogia and in the Ambigua. The second part of the essay will introduce a modern rendition of this classical tradition developed by St. Sylouan the Athonite and later popularized by his disciple Sophrony Sakharov. This essay will thus explore the objective-Christological and the subjective-anthropocentric dimension of ‘care for creation’ in the Eastern Christian tradition, highlighting its ongoing relevance for today’s reflection on environmental decay and the establishment of sustainable societies.KeywordsGlobal religionsWorldviewsTheologyEcologyCosmologyMaximos the ConfessorSylouan the AthoniteNatural orderLove of selfChristianityEastern OrthodoxChristian economy of salvationChristologyChalcedonianMystagogiaAmbiguaSophrony SakharovEastern Christian traditionSustainabilityEcological theology

The purpose of the paper is to characterize the Chernihiv, Kharkiv and Pereiaslav collegiums as cultural mediators in the process of bringing the society of Hetmanate and Sloboda Ukraine to the Antiquity heritage in the 18th century. The scientific novelty. The range of Antiquity literature studied by students of Chernihiv, Kharkiv and Pereiaslav colleges at different stages of their studies has been determined. It was established that teachers and students of Orthodox colleges in the 18th century, in addition to using European textbooks, directly consulted the works of Ancient Greek and Ancient Roman authors. Based on the analysis of various sources, the specifics of the coexistence of classical and Orthodox Christian traditions in these schools are revealed; the channels and forms of adaptation of the Antiquity heritage offered by colleges to the local society are characterized. These questions are important for identifying the specifics of cultural diffusions, the results of the ‘dialogue of cultures’, the directions of the transfer of cultural innovations on Ukrainian lands in the early modern era. Conclusions. It is proven that the Antiquity heritage in Orthodox colleges was not only an important element of educational practices, but also became an object of intellectuals’ understanding and a kind of cultural code in the process of adapting cultural innovations. Such an understanding (comprehension) took place by teachers writing manuals and translating the works of ancient Greek and Roman authors, carrying out the first scientific studies of Antiquity art, etc. The development of Antiquity heritage in colleges took place within the Eastern Christian tradition, but through the mediation of Jesuit colleges and Western European universities. Throughout the history of colleges, Christian themes and symbols did not conflict, but were organically combined with ancient ones. It is argued that the reception of Antiquity heritage went beyond the boundaries of Orthodox colleges, becoming part of urban cultural practices. A characteristic feature of the cultural practices of colleges was the interweaving of elements of Antiquity heritage with Ukrainian folk tradition. Classical antiquity to a large extent became a kind of intertext, mastering which defined one’s status as a member of the intellectual elite. The actualization of Antiquity cultural heritage at the Orthodox colleges was not only the result of sharing in the lasting European tradition of the Baroque era, but also a factor in the assimilation of the principles of humanism, and eventually ideas of the Enlightenment.

The article looks at the relationship of human beings to animals as seen from the Syriac Christian tradition. In the absence of any detailed discussion of the topic among Syriac authors, the focus of attention is on the general approach of two influential writers, the poet-theologian Ephrem (died AD 373) and the monastic author Isaac the Syrian (7th century), as illustrated above all by their interpretation of the two parts of Gen. 1:26 and the relationship between the "image of God" in which humanity is created and the "dominion/authority" conferred upon it. Also considered is the effect of sanctity upon animals.

This chapter investigates the Ethiopian concept of canon and the place and function of 1 Enoch and Jubilees in it as assessed by scholarly and ecclesiastical works. It considers the perspectives of clergy and laity in Ethiopia and the United States in order to illustrate, underscores, and contrast the evaluation of these writings with those of the standard textual sources. The chapter demonstrates that the Ethiopian concept of canon differs from western and even other eastern Christian traditions, and that the primary readers of 1 Enoch and Jubilees traditionally have been the scholarly elite, as is true of their readers today. 1 Enoch and Jubilees are part of the contemporary eighty-one book Ethiopian canon. Mashafa Mestir and Mashafa Milād, two major works that use 1 Enoch, are known today (as, most likely, throughout their history) only to the elite. Keywords: 1 Enoch ; canon; Christian traditions; Ethiopia; Jubilees ; Mashafa Mestir; Mashafa Milād