The Discussion of Media in the First Chapter of Aristotle’s Poetics

<p><em>The <strong>objective</strong> of this article is to attempt a systematization of the forms of time from the perspective of the functioning of communication environments, to identify possible models for interpreting time in the informational space of a specific communication environment, and to establish the influential potential of temporal contexts and forms that are or could be utilized in media discourse.</em></p><p><strong><em>Research methodology. </em></strong><em>The study consolidates academic approaches to qualifying time from the standpoint of communication efficiency in media activity. Time is considered as a phenomenon that defines and shapes the system of effects within a media artifact, thus highlighting the importance and significance of taking this category into account in academic and practical media activities. The research was guided by general scientific methods of theoretical research, including formalization and generalization, abduction, grounded theory, the hypothetico-deductive method, and modeling.</em></p><p><strong><em>Results. </em></strong><em>Time as a category has been thoroughly comprehended and examined in philosophical studies and is actively researched in literary studies, particularly for determining the specific nature of artistic imagery. However, media studies have not fully articulated the issue of time as a model for perception and the formation of media effects. Traditional linear conceptions of time are inadequate for assessing the social processes and phenomena that form the focus of professional media work. Moreover, the manipulation of temporal forms of context perception and the modeling of non-linear temporal structures can become, and often do become, tools of influence, including what is understood as manipulation. A broader understanding of time in media discourse, considering the social nature and functions of media in driving societal progress, justifies defining the social orientation of time at the level of media representations of societal life. This approach also allows for the establishment of correlations with philosophical, ideological, political, and other systems shaping social processes, which serve as criteria for evaluating social axiology (the dominance of past, present, or future-oriented categories in conceptualizing societal goals and needs). These specificities of time operation at the level of individual works or media discourse as a whole should form the basis for rethinking fundamental concepts of media activity, be considered in the system of communication technologies, and be integrated into analytical processes evaluating the effectiveness of texts or textual arrays (systems). This necessity underscores the importance of refining the conceptualization of time within the paradigm of media studies.</em></p><p><strong><em>Novelty. </em></strong><em>This article consolidates approaches to modeling temporal forms at the level of individual consciousness in the perception of media artifacts, emphasizes the broader social context of comprehension of time in media activity, and proposes directions for rethinking key approaches to media research by considering time as an independent category directly related to formation of influences and modeling the perception of messages in the media activity system.</em></p><p><strong><em>The practical value </em></strong><em>of this study lies in forming directions and approaches for integrating the concept of time into the design of communication environments, individual media works, and media discourse as a whole. It includes qualifying key analytical directions for media artifacts or discourse based on the characteristics of temporal modeling and the perception of messages through the lens of actualized temporal forms.</em></p><p><strong><em>Key words: </em></strong><em>time, media discourse, media artifact, temporal modeling, communication design.</em></p>

Discourse is the common sense language that represents the society, culture, social groups, group behaviours, socio-cultural identities and political ideologies. It signifies communication as a whole. Media gives space for people’s voices in its programs and publications. In the same way, media is a common representative of the voices of all the ethnic communities regardless of majority or minority in its true principle. However, the languages and voices of all ethnic communities have not been represented in the discourse of government media in Nepal. In such a situation, this research aimed to; examine the representation of ethnic-minority languages in the discourses of government media of Nepal; critically assess the socio-cultural and political cognitions of the ethnic-minorities throughout the discourses in those media, and; identify the various identities constructed by the speakers of ethnic-minority languages through the discourses in government media. The finding of the study shows that our of 125 languages spoken in Nepal only 22 ethnic languages are represented in the discourse of Nepalese government media and the ethnic minority felt themselves being included within the national discourse when they found their discourses being represented in public media.

The article deals with the specifi cs of functioning of popular scientifi c linguistic discourse in mass media. Popular science content is not mandatory for mass media. The main task of mass media is to communicate relevant information to the addressee. The functioning of popular scientifi c linguistic discourse in media sources of this type is conditioned by a number of factors that make scientifi c information relevant to the mass addressee. Based on the analysis of three print media (the newspapers Argumenty i Fakty, Izvestia and Kommersant) three factors of actu-alization of scientifi c linguistic knowledge have been revealed: 1) intellectual; 2) pragmatic; 3) informational and entertaining. The popular scientifi c linguistic discourse, the actualization of which is conditioned by the intellectual factor, helps the reader to comprehend actual facts and events. Linguistic information in this case can be presented in diff erent amounts and represented in diff erent ways. But at the same time popular scientifi c linguistic discourse is not independent, it is presented in the context of an event relevant to the reader. With the help of scientifi c knowledge, the mass addressee gets an opportunity to critically evaluate this event. Popular scientifi c linguistic discourse, the relevance of which is conditioned by the pragmatic factor, can be used by the addressee in practical speech activity. These are materials about the normative use of individual units of the Russian literary language and articles about the rules of speech interaction. The relevance of popular scientifi c linguistic discourse can be conditioned by the informational-entertainment factor: the reader as a language user shows interest in certain linguistic phenomena. On the basis of thematic analysis, the spheres of linguistic knowledge which are of the greatest interest to the mass addressee are singled out: 1) history of words and phraseologisms; 2) lexical meaning of obsolete and new words (neologisms); 3) the use of proper names. As the analysis has shown, popular scientifi c linguistic discourse in mass media is subordinated to the main principle of content formation — the principle of relevance. Communicative, genre and style specifi city, as well as the way of representation of linguistic information are determined by the in-tellectual, pragmatic or informational and entertaining factors of actualization of this discourse.

In this paper we present the proposal for a research study that aims at explaining the consequences of social media use on mass media content and public discourse. Social media is defined as a set of networked communication platforms that enable generation, distribution and consumption of user generated content. Technology features of the social media platforms are at the center of our analysis. The use of social media features is conceptualized using technology affordance theory. Borrowing from mass communication literature, we argue that media content is produced as a result of a dialectical relationship between media discourse and public opinion. The consequences of social media use on public discourse are conceptualized in terms of the changes in the dialectics between media discourse and public opinion resulting from the use of social media. Two types of public discourses are identified. We develop theory from extant literature to arrive at proposition on consequences of use of specific social media features on the media content and public discourse. Propositions are presented both for the general public discourse case and the context of particular type of discourses. We conclude this proposal by discussing the potential contributions of our study.

Media discourse refers to interactions that take place through a broadcast platform, whether spoken or written, in which the discourse is oriented to a non-present reader, listener or viewer. Though the discourse is oriented towards these recipients, they very often cannot make instantaneous responses to the producer(s) of the discourse, though increasingly this is changing with the advent of new media technology, as we shall explore. Crucially, the written or spoken discourse itself is oriented to the readership or listening/viewing audience, respectively. In other words, media discourse is a public, manufactured, on-record, form of interaction. It is not ad hoc or spontaneous (in the same way as casual speaking or writing is); it is neither private nor off the record. Obvious as these basic characteristics may sound, they are crucial to the investigation, description and understanding of media discourse. Because media discourse is manufactured, we need to consider how this has been done – both in a literal sense of what goes into its making and at an ideological level. One important strand of research into media discourse is preoccupied with taking a critical stance to media discourse, namely critical discourse analysis (CDA). It is important that we continually appraise the messages that we consume from our manufactured mass media. The fact that media discourse is public means that it also falls under the scrutiny of many conversation analysts who are interested in it as a form of institutional talk, which can be compared with other forms of talk, both mundane and institutional. The fact that media discourse is on record makes it attractive for discourse analysts and increasingly so because of the online availability of newspapers, radio stations, television programmes and so on. Advances in technology have greatly offset the ephemerality factor that used to relate to media discourse, especially radio and television (where it used to be the case that, if you wanted to record something, it had to be done in real time). It is a time of great change in media discourse, and this chapter aims to capture this moment, especially in the final section, where traditional notions of media discourse are challenged, in this time of opening up of the medium through Web 2 technologies.

In the absence of effective pharmacological therapy options, the focus of dementia and Alzheimer’s research has shifted from treatment and care to risk prediction, early detection, and prevention. Public health communication and media coverage regarding dementia emphasize the individual responsibility for dementia risk management. Focusing on the social and moral implications of the new understanding and public representation of dementia, we present an analysis of medical science, nursing science, and media discourses in Germany between 2014 and 2019. We show which notions of dementia and prevention characterize the medical and nursing science debates regarding dementia and how scientific knowledge is transferred into media discourses on dementia. We further discuss how dementia risk communication interacts with contemporary social and health policies and in what ways current dementia discourses are associated with a (self-)responsibilization of cognitive aging.

The article deals with media discourse as a specific type of communicative discourse applied in the mass media, defines the main approaches to the description of the ‘discourse’ as a term, describes the phenomenon of media communication, demonstrates the position of media discourse among other types of communicative discourse as well as its classification. Mass media produce a specific type of discourse used in the media space – media discourse. It is in the media discourse that significant political events are described as well as social, philosophical, cultural, and public trends are reflected. Media discourse holds a special place among other communicative types of discourse. The modern world is characterised by the digitalisation of a developed society, each member of which can no longer imagine life without computer technology. Along with the digitalisation of society, trends towards digitalisation are also observed in modern mass media. In the current century, mass media are progressing every day, they have a dynamic, structured, targeted character, and it is reliably proven that mass media can influence the human mind. In order to fully comprehend the functioning of media discourse as a certain system and the functioning of special speech tools in it, it has become important to deal with the problem of media discourse classification. The components of media discourse comprise not only statements as such, speakers who, most often, must have an official status, the mass audience to which information is conveyed, the communication channel, but also a large number of extralinguistic components, without which media discourse simply will not be such as it is, because the media space is now so intricately intertwined with the life of each person individually and society as a whole that one can no longer imagine one's life without daily and on-going replenishment of media information. The variety of many significant criteria is the very reason for difficulties arising under the attempts to classify media discourse. The discourse of modern media is a multifaceted cognitive and pragmatic phenomenon in which speech performs not only the function of transmitting a message, but also represents a certain social action, whilst in the media discourse of modern media, not only verbal, but also nonverbal means of communication actively function. Key-words: discourse, discourse studies, communicative discourse, media, mediatized society, digitalisation.

In the context of the Russian-Ukrainian war, the media play a significant role, firstly, by disseminating information promptly, and secondly, by actively influencing the minds and emotions of readers/listeners and thus shaping public opinion. Various aspects of media development have been covered in the works of B.O. Kovalenko, T.A. Kots, M.I. Navlna, O.A. Styshov and others. Researchers, in particular, note that a feature of the language of the mass media is the constant replenishment of new means of expressive speech against the background of standard clichés. The study of the language of periodicals has always attracted the attention of scholars and has intensified significantly during the period of the full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine. The discourse of the media during the period of Russian aggression against Ukraine has become an object of interest for such scholars as: S.Z. Bulyk-Verkhola, I.M. Kalynovska, E.K. Koliada, I.M. Koshman, etc. The development of scientific and technological progress has led to the fact that the print media are significantly inferior to the electronic media. Many newspapers (if not all) are now in electronic format, and online and blog news have emerged. The purpose of the article is to identify and study the secondary nomination of the Russian Federation, its inhabitants and its leader in the discourse of electronic media during the Russian-Ukrainian war. In the article the methods of linguistic observation and descriptive methods related to the study of the usual and occasional motivation of the secondary nomination are used. The electronic media form the information components of the image of Russia, its inhabitants and its leader. As a result of the study of the selected corpus of names, we conclude that secondary nominations and periphrastic descriptive phrases make political and informational texts more imaginative, expressive, emotional, evaluative, fresh, original, and allow for the most accurate expression of the author's vision of the facts and events, and make the material interesting and witty.) Negative semantics reflects disdain for the enemy, ridicules Russia's military power, motivates the public, and strengthens international support for Ukraine. Further research will focus on the coverage of the enemy image in regional media.

Resumo Neste artigo, tomam-se como materialidade as campanhas publicitárias, as postagens e as palestras de três instituições privadas de Ensino Superior, dispostas no facebook e no youtube no período de 2008 a 2015, para identificar o que se nomeia discurso da mídia universitária. Também interessa saber como a mídia universitária age em relação ao estudante do Ensino Superior privado. Para isso, inicialmente, retoma-se a noção de discurso em Michel Foucault e defende-se que o discurso da mídia tem a função de produzir e assimilar capacidades técnicas, induzir efeitos de poder e disponibilizar verdades. A partir das discussões de Foucault sobre o neoliberalismo, argumenta-se que esse funcionamento se dá por meio de uma teia discursiva que associa pelo menos três discursos: mercado, política e aprendizagem. Ao analisar a materialidade à luz das teorizações aqui referidas, constata-se que o discurso da mídia universitária produz um tipo específico de sujeito universitário: o sujeito empreendedor de si.

Recent analyses of discourse have focused on recurring sequential structures. An examination of discourse in different communication media has shown that strict sequentially is not universal. Instead, discourse in some media is structured with “multiple threads.” The significant property of the media producing this difference in discourse was identified as the temporal delay between turns. Discourse in “non‐real time” media, such as electronic message systems, contain time‐saving devices that produce multiple threads. These differences between media are discussed in light of the relative resource limitation of real time interaction and the data limitation of non‐real time interaction.

In this chapter, we analyse the evolution of expert discourse in the media during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada. We begin with an overview of the use of expertise in the Canadian public-health decision-making chain in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, highlighting the tensions, contradictions and paradoxes of political communication that this process revealed. These decisions were widely reflected and debated in the media, hence the relevance of studying them from the perspective of social representations. Based on our analysis of 527 media products published by CBC/Radio Canada between 1 January and 31 August 2020, it was possible to document the type of expertise mobilised, the types of experts engaged by the media, the modalities of appropriation of this discourse by non-experts and the use of expert discourse by political actors. The analysis of the governmental measures that have generated the most controversy and debate in the media has allowed us to reveal the public’s understanding of the pandemic through the process of representational naturalisation. Specifically, we show the role of expert discourse in determining which aspects of COVID-19 pandemic the public and political authorities in Canada have defined as a social problem.

Language is a human element which is developed according to cultural and ideological developments of humanity. Consequently, translation and linguistic studies develop too. Cognitive metaphor is one of the clearest examples that proves language development as it has proven how a linguistic element can transfer from being a rhetorical tool to being a communicative tool. In other words, in modern linguistics, cognitive metaphor is a communicative-linguistic element rather than a symbolic element The significance of the study is to shed light on the approaches and tools for translating cognitive metaphors in terms of modern media discourse. Media discourse is an interdisciplinary area that is associated with many fields and ideologies. That is why, in terms of modern metaphor, the study elaborates on the techniques and approaches of translating cognitive metaphor in media discourse as a tool of meaning and ideas rather than being a figure of speech. Here, the main question raised by the present study is how to translate cognitive metaphor in media discourse without losing the main features of media language in the target text. Consequently, the study introduces a complete account and guide for translating cognitive metaphors in media discourse. Thus, the present study aims at defining and analyzing the tools and approaches through which cognitive metaphors can be translated from English into Arabic in media discourse. Media discourse has become one of the unique forms of discourse that are integrated with other disciplines and areas such as politics, science, sports, and technology. That is why the present study is an attempt to elaborate the connection between media discourse and translation in terms of cognitive metaphor

Modern life is impossible to imagine without the means of communication and human interaction. Technical means of communication (radio, television, and especially the Internet) has had a great impact on the social, political, economic, cultural and historical characteristics of society, on the mass consciousness of people (participants in communication) and, in turn, on discourse. In other words, the development of telecommunications and information technology has led to the emergence of a special kind of discourse interaction: media discourse. The purpose of this study is to investigate the origin of the concept of «media discourse,» as well as to identify its main specific features. An attempt has also been made to classify media discourse from the perspective of channels of communicative influence on the media-discourse recipient and define them according to the way of communicative influence on the recipient. In the course of the work the authors proposed their own definition of this complex communicative phenomenon and revealed that media discourse is a dialogic and public type of discourse by its structure. Today, this type of discourse is not only the most widespread in terms of the audience that is involved in the media-discursive communicative process, but also perhaps the most influential type of discourse, as it is the media discourse that is directly involved in shaping public opinion. Since media-discursive content is a product of human cognitive and evaluative activity, the recipient should analyze this content using critical discourse-analysis in order to avoid transforming his or her own opinion under the influence of the media. Thus, the study of media discourse is an urgent task for contemporary linguistics and media discourse can be considered as a form of rational human behaviour maintaining optimal order both for micro-collectives and society as a whole.

The paper reveals the topic structure of ethnic discussions in the Russian-speaking social media and explores how these topics are related to the post-Soviet ethnic groups. Analyzed more than 2.6 million texts from Russian-speaking social media published for two-year period from 2014 to 2015 and contained at least one of the post-Soviet ethnonyms, we conclude that ethnic discussions in these media are full of socially significant and potentially problematic topics (15 topics out of 97 can be regarded as problematic comparing to the 4 out of 150 topics on random sample from VK.com). The most salient topics are the topics about Ukraine-Russia relations over the recent conflict between two countries. We also found the racial bias in criminal topic towards peoples of the North Caucasus which are often mentioned in the context of crimes and terrorism.

The article considers the manipulative potential of stylistic means in modern media discourse. Media discourse is a special type of communication, characterized by high manipulative potential. Despite the abundance of relevant literature on various aspects of manipulation, the study of the mechanisms of speech influence in the media remains in high demand in linguistics. The role of stylistic means which are the basis for implementing manipulation in mass communication remains on the periphery of scholarly research. This determines the relevance of the study devoted to a comprehensive analysis of stylistic figures and tropes that are used in media discourse to manipulate information. The object of the study is the texts of online editions of English-language newspapers, exerting manipulative influence on the reader. The subject of the research is stylistic linguistic means of information manipulation in media discourse. The aim of the study is to identify and describe the means of implementation of language and speech manipulation in English-language media discourse. The authors of the article come to the conclusion that speech manipulation is a verbally expressed type of psychological influence of the sender of media discourse on its addressee, which results in the object of manipulation first having a desire or intention that is alien to him/her, leading to a certain personal benefit or psychological advantage for the manipulator. The manipulative potential manifests itself at different linguistic levels: morphology, lexis, syntax and semasiology. Stylistic means of manipulation include metaphors, simile, personification, allusion, irony, litotes, antithesis, repetition, inversion, parallelism, parcelling, etc. The choice of stylistic techniques of linguistic manipulation depends on the journalist’s intentions, his/her desire to make the text more distinct, to enhance its expressiveness and manipulative potential in order to arouse confidence in the information presented or to impose his/her opinion on the addressee.