The Development of Standards for the Ethical Use of Human Skeletal Remains for Education, Research, and Training in Forensic Anthropology.

European and Northwest African Middle Pleistocene Hominids by F. Clark Howell of human skeletal remains from the Middle Pleistocene has always been one of the greatest gaps in human-paleontological knowledge. At THE SPARSE REPRESENTATION first, Southeastern Asia was unique in having provided remains from the Trinil beds in Java, but the signifi­ cance of this poorly preserved skull-cap was confirmed and greatly amplified by subsequent discoveries (Von Koenigswald 1940) of better preserved specimens at other localities of similar age, as well as in the still older Djetis beds. Still tfuly unique in all the world is the somewhat younger occupation site of Locality 1 Choukoutien, with its extraordinarily abundant, prob­ ably cannibalized, human remains in association with hearths, stone implements (Choukoutienian chopper/ chopping-tool complex), and remains of slaughtered animals. For many years, the only such find from the West was the enigmatic human mandible from the Grafenrain gravel pit at Mauer in the Rhineland. Then, within a few years in the mid-thirties, three additional speci­ mens came to light in western Europe (Steinheim), Britain (Swanscombe), and northwest Africa (Rabat, Morocco). In the last several years, further Middle Pleistocene human remains were found in northwest Africa, both in Algeria (Ternifine) and in Morocco (Sidi Abderrahman). All these discoveries (Fig. I) have excellent paleontological associations, and, in three cases (Swanscombe, Ternifine, Sidi Abderrahman), there are associated stone implements (Acheulean of various stages). However, no occupation site is yet F. CLARK HOWELL is Associate Professor of Anthropology, De­ partment of Anthropology, University of Chicago (Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.). He was born in 1925, and educated at the University of Chicago (Ph.D., 1953). HOWELL has undertaken field and other studies on early man in Europe (1953,1956) and in Africa (1954,1957-58,1959), and made a recent brief visit to Israel (1959). He has published various papers on human paleontology, especially as regards the Neanderthal problem, and on early man and the Pleisto­ cene in general. Prior to submitting the present paper to CURRENT ANTHRO­ POLOGY, HOWELL sent it, for comment and criticism, to three colleagues, of whom W. W. Howells and Kenneth P. Oakley responded. The response was primarily commendatory, and except for HOWELL's addition of some paragraphs along lines recommended by Oakley, the paper stands as first written. Vol. I . No.3' Ma)' 1960 known from the Middle Pleistocene of Europe or Africa with in situ human skeletal remains, stone im· plements, and the bones of slaughtered animals. These human skeletal remains, taken in conjunction with those from the Middle Pleistocene of eastern and southern Asia, have an important bearing on interpre­ tations of the course of human evolution. The signifi­ cance of these discoveries has been obscured by the pre­ occupation of some human paleontologists with other human remains either suspected to be of Pleistocene antiquity or questionable due to an extraordinary com· plex of morphological features (the famous hoax of Piltdown). Largely as a consequence of this, there have grown up two main interpretations of man's phylogeny in the Pleistocene, one depending on the possible im­ portance of the suspicious fossils, and the other de­ pending only on the scanty, but well-dated, human fos­ sils enumerated above. The former interpretation recognizes an early, at least earlier, Middle Pleistocene separation of a morphologically modern (sapiens) lineage. The latter postulates progressive transforma· tion of primitive and variable Middle Pleistocene hu­ man populations into diverse Neanderthal and re­ lated, geographically distinctive, groups, as well as into incipiently sapiens peoples. The purpose of this paper is to discuss tI-1e significance of the :Middle Pleistocene human remains from Europe and North Africa for the resolution of this basic problem in the study of human phylogeny. COMPARATIVE STRATIGRAPHY AND ASSOCIATIONS THAMES RIVER: SWANSCOl\'IBE The Swanscombe human remains were recovered from gravel deposits exposed in the Barnfield pit, be­ tween Dartford and Gravesend, on the south bank of the lower Thames River valley. Marston (1937) dis­ covered a complete occipital in June, 1935, and a left parietal in March, 1936. Twenty years later Wymer re­ covered the right parietal of the same individual. The three fragments occurred in the same seam of sandy

ABSTRACTIn November 2008, human skeletal remains were discovered during construction works undertaken by Carlop Properties in the Chloorkop industrial area, Kempton Park, Gauteng. The Forensic Anthropology Unit of the University of Pretoria, Forensic Anthropology Research Centre (FARC) was notified, and rescue excavations of both the exposed and the undisturbed remains were undertaken. The skeletonised remains of at least 18 individuals were recovered and sent to the Department of Anatomy at the University of Pretoria for standard anthropological analysis. The identity and the time period of these human remains are unknown, and during social consultation, no relatives could be identified. Excavations revealed a formal burial pattern, which suggests a formal cemetery, probably associated with a historic institution. All individuals were buried in wooden coffins in an extended, supine position. The remains consist of both adult and juvenile remains. Some of the remains were found in a commingled state because of disturbance caused by construction work. The minimum number of individuals was determined by the visual pair matching of skeletal elements on the basis of similarities observed in bone morphology, age and sex, trauma and pathology and taphonomic alterations. Bioarchaeological techniques were used, and the following results were obtained. Of the 18 individuals, at least 15 were identified to be males, one possibly female and two juveniles. At least five of the adult male individuals presented with cut marks associated with standard autopsy procedures. No reference to the individuals' identity or to the context of the cemetery within the historical span of the Chloorkop area has been located. However, the burial pattern observed, as well as the demographic profile and pathology observed on the skeletal remains, suggests that these individuals could be linked to the Klipfontein Organic Products Factory (ca 1941s–1970s), which employed many migrant labourers, most to whom lived in compounds on the factory premises. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The DNA analysis of aged human skeletal remains is pivotal to forensic genetics, forensic anthropology, and archaeology. Using VOSviewer and Biblioshiny, we analyzed 982 publications from the Web of Science (WoS) Core Collection to evaluate publication trends, key contributors, influential journals and articles, and the thematic evolution of the field through co-authorship networks, keyword co-occurrence, and temporal overlay mapping. The results indicate the publication in this field began in 1989 and peaked at 72 articles in 2021. The most prolific countries were the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, Italy, and Spain. Leading institutions included the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, the University of Ljubljana, and the University of Copenhagen. High-impact contributors included Pääbo, Svante; Willerslev, Eske; Krause, Johannes; and Pajnič, Irena Zupanič. The most active journals were Forensic Science International, Journal of Forensic Sciences, Forensic Science International: Genetics, International Journal of Legal Medicine, and American Journal of Physical Anthropology. The most highly cited article was "Hofreiter, 2001, Nat Rev Genet". Keywords co-occurrence highlighted "ancient DNA (aDNA)", "human skeletal remains", "mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)", "forensic science", and "human identification" as dominant themes. Recent trends underscore the integration of aDNA into forensics workflows, increasing reliance on mtDNA and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) profiling, and massively parallel sequencing (MPS) applications for degraded DNA. Collectively, the findings highlight the transformative impact of technological innovation and international collaboration on the field's evolution. Continued global cooperation is essential to drive innovation, optimize resources, and accelerate forensic genetics research.

Human remains are present in a number of contexts. Some of these are archaeological burial sites, which can comprise individual or mass graves burials. Human remains are usually found buried (or cremated), but they can also be found in museums and in universities, as part of their anatomical collections. Human remains can be found in churches as relics, in ossuaries, and as part of objects. Hence human remains refer to not just a complete skeleton, but also apart of a bone or tooth, hair and mummified remains. In more recent forensic, police or medico-legal cases, human skeletal remains can be found in a number of contexts, such as fire scenes, natural disasters, clandestine graves, or on the surface in open areas (e.g. a woodland). One aspect ofphysical anthropology is that which studies human skeletal remains in order to reconstruct the past, understand human variation, and provide information about the deceased individuals, such as their age at death, sex, ancestry, stature, pathological conditions or traumatic injuries; the remains from medico-legal or police cases fall under the branch offorensic anthropology.

Solving cold cases: The importance of new identification techniques in old cases of forensic anthropology

The skillset of a biological anthropologist is applicable to medico legal death investigation. Among the specialists that examine the human body in a forensic context, biological anthropologists are uniquely skilled to derive information from the scarcest of physical materials. Given the high level of skill and experience required, the forensic specialization within biological anthropology necessitates an extended course of education and training especially pertaining to the interpretation of skeletal trauma, scientific identification, and recovery methods. In addition to providing guidance for trainees and educators, published standards legitimize the specialization and facilitate the evaluation of forensic anthropology expertise by peer professionals (e.g., forensic pathologists, law enforcement, and judges). A young discipline, forensic anthropology was only acknowledged as a specialization by the American Academy of Forensic Sciences in 1972. Over the past 50 years, forensic anthropologists have worked to professionalize the discipline, including standardization of education and training requirements. Achieving consensus on these standards has, and will continue to be, a dynamic process as improved technology and research improve practice. This manuscript presents the current state of the discipline and the varied ways forensic anthropology practitioners have been educated and trained. We argue that there is a consensus on minimum education and training requirements for a forensic anthropologist, especially with respect to analytical skills. However, the discourse around professionalism and personal growth is less robust. In a position that requires intensive inter-disciplinary communication and collaboration, a lack of attention to training in professionalism writ large is a serious gap; therefore, we propose immersive postdoctoral fellowships and other similar training in the Medical Examiner/Coroner setting to gain expertise in this specialization. Supervision of a senior forensic anthropologist is necessary not only to hone analytical skills and gain experience through exposure to a variety of cases but also to teach professionalism. Over time, we expect that this model will promote the value of forensic anthropological expertise and, by extension, their integration in the offices of the Medical Examiner in the future. Thus, the Forensic Anthropology Postdoctoral Fellowship is introduced here as a model for advanced training in forensic anthropology.

Conducting osteological analyses on human skeletal material enhances our knowledge of these remains. Photos and descriptions are insufficient when communicating the wear, pathology, variation, or nuances of native populations. There are numerous laws, regulations, and financial dilemmas hindering our ability to further research human skeletal remains. Unfortunately, smaller institutions frequently find sophisticated imaging tools to be cost-prohibitive. Photographs lack sufficient detail when attempting to capture and convey an accurate representation of the unique structure, markings, and degenerationof human skeletal remains. Integrating new technology and techniques into this field has the potential to solve these dilemmas. CT scanning and file extracting creates virtual three-dimensional models and stores the information for future study. This removes the time limit surrounding this research (due to mandatory repatriation) and allows for thorough skeletal analyses. To assess this methodology, we conducted complete osteological analyses on two CT replicated human skeletal remains of two individuals uncovered during the archaeological excavation in Cabell County, West Virginia. In previous studies we analyzed the accuracy of the digital data by comparing physical human remains to the digitized versions. We hypothesized that the digital replicas allow a complete osteological analysis of the human skeletal material. Data were collected using human remains digitized on a GE VCT Medical CT scanner. The CT data were extracted into a 3D digital file for analysis while using the Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Results show we can indicate identification of fundamental skeletal anatomy with all skeletal landmarks and basic osteometric measurements.

Dr Lundy is a physical anthropologist at the U.S. Army Central Identification Laboratory, Hawaii, and faculty affiliate at the department of anatomy and reproductive biology, University of Hawaii. When skeletal remains are discovered, immediate questions arise. Are they human? If so, how many persons are represented? Was the person male or female? To what ethnic group did he or she belong? How old was the person at the time of death? How tall was the person in life? What is the period of time since death, and what, if any, is the osteological evidence for the cause of death? Forensic pathologists, coroners and police officers are usually not properly trained to perform such examinations. The forensic physical anthropologist is the individual best trained to answer the above questions and in turn, provide investigators with a physical description of the person which can then be compared with missing person reports. A tentative match can then be pursued with detailed dental and medical records in hopes of establishing positive identity. In addition to training in physical anthropology and anatomy, the forensic physical anthropologist must be skilled in the interpretation of the morphology and variation of the human skeleton. Such skills are usually gained by studying large skeletal collections where one gets the 'feel' for the often subtle skeletal variations based upon sex, ethnic group and age. Most forensic anthropologists in the United States are employed in universities and museums and do their forensic work on a consulting basis. A few are employed full-time in government positions. The specialty is small with fewer than 80 members in the Physical Anthropology Section of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, and less than 40 have undergone voluntary certification in forensic anthropology by the American Board of Forensic Anthropology. What follows is a brief discussion of how the forensic anthropologist attempts to answer the questions posed by the discovery of skeletal remains.

When human skeletal remains are discovered, there is initially little knowledge or explanation of their background. Executing a thorough osteological analysis of human skeletal remains can identify unknown information and provide new knowledge. Skeletal remains purchased from India until 1985 are believed to stem from a “legal” grave-robbing bone trade. A set of human remains housed at WVWC’s human anatomy lab, purchased in the early 1960s, display an “Origin India” sticker. Due to the origination, we decided to analyze the human remains. The purpose of this study is to conduct a complete osteological analysis on this set of human remains. Data were collected using Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains and The Human Bone Manual. Specific bony features and abnormalities found during the analysis were compared to the given scientific norms to establish pathology. Preliminary anthropometric assessments show lumbosacral scoliosis. The remains appear to belong to a young adult (15-20) but age is difficult to infer due to post mortem alteration of the epiphyses. There is evidence of a potential calcium deficiency, which also affects epiphyseal fusion, which can alter age approximation. Sex appears ambiguous which supports the young age, but leaning male, based on the pubic symphysis and ventral arc. Bone remodeling around the sternum indicates fracture with complete healing. The tibiae show bowing; all articulations appear gracile, though some long bones show early osteoarthritis. Due to this controversial analysis, future research warrants a detailed computed tomography scan.

A new set of multiplexed PCR primers has been applied to the analysis of human skeletal remains to determine their efficacy in analyzing degraded DNA. These primer sets, known as Miniplexes, produce shorter amplicons (50-280 base pairs (bp)) than standard short tandem repeat (STR) kits, but still utilize the 13 CODIS STR loci, providing results that are searchable on national DNA databases. In this study, a set of 31 different human remains were exposed to a variety of environmental conditions, extracted, and amplified with commercial and Miniplex DNA typing kits. The amplification efficiency of the Miniplex sets was then compared with the Promega PowerPlex 16 system. Sixty-four percent of the samples generated full profiles when amplified with the Miniplexes, while only 16% of the samples generated full profiles with the Powerplex 16 kit. Complete profiles were obtained for 11 of the 12 Miniplex loci with amplicon sizes less than 200 bp. These data suggest smaller PCR amplicons may provide a useful alternative to mitochondrial DNA for anthropological and forensic analysis of degraded DNA from human skeletal remains.

The membership of the Physical Anthropology Section of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences was surveyed regarding training; section activity; teaching; forensic science activities; and trial, deposition, and caseloads over the last 20 years. Over 75% of the active members responded. Over half of the respondents had formal forensic anthropology training, 70% held a Ph.D. degree and 52% had primary appointments in university and college departments of anthropology. Approximately half of those involved in teaching were producing forensic anthropology students. Local areas (36%) and states (45%) are primary sources of cases. Respondents spend nearly 60% of their professional time on forensic science activity, mostly in casework and research/writing. Over the past 20 years, there has been a revolution in the training of forensic anthropologists, in terms of formal coursework and supervision of student cases. Also in that time, caseloads, depositions given, and trial appearances have greatly increased. When region, highest degree earned, membership status, and board certification are considered, there are few significant differences in the forensic anthropology activity of members, and most of these differences are in training and Academy membership status.

This chapter focuses on the analysis and identification of human remains, in particular those that are skeletonised. Forensic identification of human remains is a legal duty based on the scientific compatibility of information on missing persons with unidentified human remains. When human skeletal remains are presented, the most important methods for establishing identity include DNA analysis, odontology, comparative X-ray analysis, and skull–photo comparison. Moreover, when human skeletal remains are found, it is mandatory to medically examine them in order to pronounce death and establish, if possible, time, manner, and cause of death where attainable. Once the skeletal remains have been identified as being human, subsequently, the identification of the victim’s characteristics, and cause and manner of death from the skeleton takes place. The identification of human remains is important for both legal and humanitarian reasons. Moreover, a multidisciplinary approach is very important in the case of the recovery of human skeletal remains.

Medical examiners and forensic anthropologists are often faced with the difficult task of removing soft tissue from the human skeleton without damaging the bones, teeth and, in some cases, cartilage. While there are a number of acceptable methods that can be used to remove soft tissue including macerating in water, simmering or boiling, soaking in ammonia, removing with scissors, knife, scalpel or stiff brush, and dermestid beetles, each has its drawback in time, safety, or potential to damage bone. This technical report using the chest plate of a stabbing victim presents a safe and effective alternative method for removing soft tissue from human remains, in particular the chest plate, following autopsy, without damaging or separating the ribs, sternum, and costal cartilage. This method can be used to reveal subtle blunt force trauma to bone, slicing and stabbing injuries, and other forms of trauma obscured by overlying soft tissue. Despite the published cautionary notes, when done properly household bleach (3-6% sodium hypochlorite) is a quick, safe, and effective method for examining cartilage and exposing skeletal trauma by removing soft tissue from human skeletal remains.

Forensic anthropology deals with the identification of human remains in a legal setting. The primary role of a forensic anthropologist is to evaluate human skeletal remains and ascertain the biological profile of the deceased. Forensic anthropologists thus use their expertise to assist medical examiners, as well as law enforcement agencies. Forensic anthropology was not recognised as a subject specialty of much significance in most parts of the world for a long time. However, now its status has changed, mostly in the USA and parts of Europe. The scope of the subject ranges from evaluation of human skeletal remains to the identification of the living. In the new millennium, the role of forensic anthropologists includes disaster victim identification, photographic superimposition, facial image reconstruction in CCTV footage, gait pattern analysis from video surveillance, ascertaining the age of an individual in absence of legal documents and paedo-pornographic materials. Despite its relevance in human identification, the development of forensic anthropology in India is not very encouraging. Only a few institutions in India include forensic anthropology as a part of the forensic science degree programme, and there are no certified courses in anthropology either. Likewise, there are limited employment opportunities for forensic anthropologists in medical institutes/organisations/universities. This comprehensive review focuses on the status and development of forensic anthropology in India and emphasises the need for its recognition as a specialty of significance. The article also throws light on the comparison of its status in the Indian context vis a vis developed nations.

The essential purpose of the forensic anthropological discipline is the identification of human remains when nearly or completely skeletonized remains are found and a standard soft tissue autopsy can no longer be performed. Identification of human skeletal remains is defined as the act of establishing an identity that permits an individual to be definable and recognizable. In archaeological and forensic contexts, identification involves the possibility to attribute a correct name to human remains. Different circumstances, such as those involve an unexplained natural death, homicide, accident or political, ethnic or religious violence, or mass disaster events, can require to establish 290the identity of a deceased individual. In all these situations, the joint use of physical and molecular methods can be effective in allowing the identification activity. This chapter will introduce the forensic anthropological activity as a fundamental tool in identification contexts of human skeletal remains and will present how a DNA analysis expert of highly degraded samples may be an important ally of physical anthropologist in challenging situations.