The contribution of citizens to threatened plant conservation

The Mediterranean Basin is a global hotspot of biodiversity. Hotspots are said to be experiencing a major loss of habitat, but an added risk could be the decline of some species having a special role in ecological relationships of the system. We reviewed the role of European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) as a keystone species in the Iberian Peninsula portion of the Mediterranean hotspot. Rabbits conspicuously alter plant species composition and vegetation structure through grazing and seed dispersal, which creates open areas and preserves plant species diversity. Moreover, rabbit latrines have a demonstrable effect on soil fertility and plant growth and provide new feeding resources for many invertebrate species. Rabbit burrows provide nest sites and shelter for vertebrates and invertebrates. In addition, rabbits serve as prey for a number of predators, including the critically endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) and Spanish Imperial Eagle (Aquila adalberti). Thus, the Mediterranean ecosystem of the Iberian Peninsula should be termed "the rabbit's ecosystem." To our knowledge, this is the first empirical support for existence of a multifunctional keystone species in a global hotspot of biodiversity. Rabbit populations have declined drastically on the Iberian Peninsula, with potential cascading effects and serious ecological and economic consequences. From this perspective, rabbit recovery is one of the biggest challenges for conservation of the Mediterranean Basin hotspot.

The Mediterranean region is both a global biodiversity hot spot and one of the biomes most strongly affected by human activities. Ecologists and land managers are increasingly required to advise on threats to biodiversity under foreseeable climate change. We used expert surveys to evaluate current understanding and uncertainties regarding climate change impacts on biodiversity in terrestrial, inland freshwater, and marine ecosystems of Israel. Finally, we propose a response strategy toward minimizing these changes. The surveys and the published literature indicated that the main climate change impacts in Israel include ongoing deterioration of freshwater habitats, decline of shrubland and woodland areas, and increased frequency and severity of forest fires. For the Mediterranean Sea, the surveys predict further introduction and establishment of invasive species from the Red Sea, accelerated erosion of coastal rocky habitat, and collapse of coastal rocky platforms. In the Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea, corals may be resilient to foreseen climate change due to their high tolerance for rising water temperatures. Despite these predictions, science-based knowledge regarding the contribution of management toward minimizing climate change impacts on biodiversity is still lacking. Habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation are presently the primary and immediate threats to natural ecosystems in Israel. Protection of natural ecosystems, including local refugia, must be intensified to maintain existing biodiversity under pressure from mounting urban development and climate change. This protection policy should include ecological corridors to minimize the consequences of fragmentation of existing natural habitats for species survival. A longer-term strategy should mandate connectivity across environmental and climatic gradients to maintain natural resilience by allowing reorganization of natural ecosystems facing climate change.

The identification of species-rich areas and their prognosticated turnover under climate change are crucial for the conservation of endemic taxa. This study aims to identify areas of reptile endemicity richness in a global biodiversity hot spot (Morocco) under current and future climatic conditions and to investigate the role of protected areas in biodiversity conservation under climate change. Species distribution models (SDM) were performed over the distribution of 21 endemic reptiles, combined to estimate current species richness at 1 × 1 km resolution and projected to years 2050 and 2080 according to distinct story lines and ensemble global circulation models, assuming unlimited and null dispersion ability. Generalized additive models were performed between species richness and geographic characteristics of 43 protected areas. SDM found precipitation as the most important factor related to current species distributions. Important reductions in future suitable areas were predicted for 50 % of species, and four species were identified as highly vulnerable to extinction. Drastic reductions in species-rich areas were predicted for the future, with considerable variability between years and dispersal scenarios. High turnover rates of species composition were predicted for eastern Morocco, whereas low values were forecasted for the Northern Atlantic coast and mountains. Species richness for current and future conditions was significantly related to the altitude and latitude of protected areas. Protected areas located in mountains and/or in the Northern Atlantic coast were identified as refugia, where population monitoring and conservation management is needed.

The earth is in the midst of a sixth major extinction crisis with biodiversity highly threatened by climate change at global scales. Biodiversity is crucial to humans due to the ecosystem functioning and services it provides, and therefore the conservation of biodiversity is paramount to human prosperity in in the future. This PhD thesis uses amphibians to examine biodiversity patterns across the Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa (CFEA), a global biodiversity hotspot. The CFEA comprises of a network of tiny fragmented forest patches thought to be the remnants of a once widespread tropical forest that spanned across tropical Africa from West to East prior to major tectonic activity in the Miocene. The gradual aridification of the African continent since then, combined with significant climate and sea level oscillations during the Pliocene and Pleistocene contributed to the natural fragmentation of the CFEA, but human impacts have severely accelerated the pace of forest loss. The work in this thesis integrates field work, taxonomy, morphology, molecular techniques and spatial data to measure biodiversity across the CFEA, explain its distribution and provide a conceptual framework in which this data can be usefully applied for future conservation efforts. A broad scale DNA barcoding project forms the basis of all work in the thesis, assimilating museum specimens and archived spatial records with newly collected data from recent fieldwork to create the most thorough inventory of the CFEA amphibians currently known. Chapter 1 focuses on the use of Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) data for five widespread species clades to estimate phylogeny and population structure, genetic distances between populations, and explain these patterns using long-term environmental data. Chapter 2 maps the spatial distribution of evolutionary history measured from phylogenetic branch lengths for multiple intraspecific lineages within species, highlighting places which appear to be refugia and examining their environmental correlates and conservation. Chapter 3 uses close to the full assemblage of Tanzania and Kenya (55 species) to categorize the types of endemism present, distinguishing areas that are ‘museums’ supporting ancient diversity (paleo-endemism) from ‘cradles’ that support recently evolved diversity (neo-endemism). Chapter 4 combines morphological, genetic and spatial data to describe a new endemic species of treefrog, Hyperolius ruvuensis, from a highly threatened reserve in coastal Tanzania. A synthesis chapter summarises the work in the thesis and outlines new directions for CFEA conservation.

Mountains present particular challenges for biodiversity conservation. Table Mountain is a significant mountain in a global biodiversity hotspot, the Cape Floristic Region. It has outstanding angiosperm diversity and endemism. Yet, aerial and foliage invertebrates in the area have been poorly studied, despite their importance as pollinators and predators. These plant and invertebrate assemblages are under great pressure from human disturbance. Aerial and foliage invertebrates were sampled with a range of techniques. Sites were chosen to make comparisons between vegetation structure and type, elevation and aspect. In total, 216 species from 63 families and 14 orders were recorded. Vegetation structure (fynbos or forest) and elevation were the most important environmental variables for both aerial and foliage invertebrates. Peak time for aerial invertebrate abundance was spring and summer in the fynbos and spring in the forests, while the foliage invertebrates showed very little seasonal variation. There was no correlation between the diversity of aerial and foliage invertebrates. When these results were compared with others on epigaeic invertebrates, it became clear that epigaeic and aerial invertebrates are not correlated, while epigaeic and foliage invertebrates were only partially correlated, but not sufficiently so to consider one as a reliable estimator of the other. The management pointer from this study is that sites at all elevations are vital for the conservation of biodiversity on Table Mountain. Both the aerial and epigaeic/foliage invertebrate assemblages will need to be monitored separately to maintain the mountain’s conservation status.

Land abandonment is common in the Mediterranean Basin, a global biodiversity hotspot, but little is known about its impacts on biodiversity. To upscale existing case-study insights to the Pan-Mediterranean level, we conducted a meta-analysis of the effects of land abandonment on plant and animal species richness and abundance in agroforestry, arable land, pastures, and permanent crops of the Mediterranean Basin. In particular, we investigated (1) which taxonomic groups (arthropods, birds, lichen, vascular plants) are more affected by land abandonment; (2) at which spatial and temporal scales the effect of land abandonment on species richness and abundance is pronounced; (3) whether previous land use and current protected area status affect the magnitude of changes in the number and abundance of species; and (4) how prevailing landforms and climate modify the impacts of land abandonment. After identifying 1240 potential studies, 154 cases from 51 studies that offered comparisons of species richness and abundance and had results relevant to our four areas of investigation were selected for meta-analysis. Results are that land abandonment showed slightly increased (effect size = 0.2109, P<0.0001) plant and animal species richness and abundance overall, though results were heterogeneous, with differences in effect size between taxa, spatial-temporal scales, land uses, landforms, and climate. In conclusion, there is no “one-size-fits-all” conservation approach that applies to the diverse contexts of land abandonment in the Mediterranean Basin. Instead, conservation policies should strive to increase awareness of this heterogeneity and the potential trade-offs after abandonment. The strong role of factors at the farm and landscape scales that was revealed by the analysis indicates that purposeful management at these scales can have a powerful impact on biodiversity.

The Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH), the highest mountain biome, also referred as the third pole or the water tower of Asia, is an important repository of biological and cultural diversities and source of varied ecosystems services to 240 million people living within and 1.9 billion in the mountains and downstream. The region has been in spotlight for being part of the 36 ‘Global Biodiversity Hotspot’ and ‘Crises Ecoregions’ as well as climate change hotspot. However, there is still knowledge gap on understanding the dynamics of changing landscapes and climate and its linkage to people, mostly challenged by poverty. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), an intergovernmental regional knowledge and enabling centre, has been instrumental in developing better understanding on the dynamics of these fragile ecosystems and support its regional member countries through science-based integrated approaches. Since its inception, ICIMOD has been engaged in developing knowledge and supporting policies for mountain development focusing on socio-economic, ecological and environmental dimensions. In this chapter, we present the retrospect of our interventions in science, policy and practice in transboundary landscape management through regional cooperation mostly focused on biodiversity conservation and community development perspectives.KeywordsClimate changeEcosystem degradationNature-based solutionsParticipatory approachRegional cooperation

Questions: Do invasions of P. halepensis (Aleppo pine) from plantations into adjacent natural communities occur in the Mediterranean region, where the species is native? What are the spatio-temporal processes involved in pine invasions in contrasting Mediterranean and semi-arid climatic regions? Location: Mediterranean and semi-arid regions of Israel. Methods: The density of invading Pinus was measured in relation to the distance from the plantation edge. Plants were categorized by age, height, basal stem girth and developmental stage, their spatial distribution was also recorded. Results: Analysis of plant age distribution indicates that the invasion process started when the plantations were 20-25 years old. Most invading plants were found within 20 m from the plantation edge, but a few individuals reached distances up to 100 m and became new invasion foci. Plant density declined sharply with distance from adult trees, data showing a better fit to a power model than to a negative exponential model. Invading Pinus began to produce cones earlier in the semi-arid than in the Mediterranean region (9 vs 12 years to 50% reproductive plants). In both regions, higher densities of invading plants were found on the west side of the plantation, the opposite direction to the hot winds that prevail during seed release. Conclusion: The frontal advance of P. halepensis from plantations is relatively slow, but the populations also expand by a saltation process, creating spreading ‘islands’ of pine trees in the natural vegetation. Spatial pattern of recruits with distance from the source population was remarkably similar to the pattern of seed dispersal in the same region (Nathan et al. 1999). This implies that the probability of a dispersed seed developing into a plant is independent of the distance from the forest edge.

IntroductionThe post 2020 Global Biodiversity Framework advocates for a whole-of-government and whole-of-society approach to address the global biodiversity crisis, with increasing calls for local governments to play a more active role in biodiversity conservation. We present a local government led examination of tools aimed at increasing biodiversity protection, management, and ecosystem restoration in the City of Durban, located in a global biodiversity hotspot.MethodsUsing analytical frameworks and local government data, we assessed the efficacy of tools applied, and identified barriers and potential enablers to improve conservation outcomes.ResultsWe confirmed areas of success in the development of fit-for-purpose town planning tools that have contributed toward avoided loss of biodiversity, and the implementation of tools that have increased the protection of important biodiversity sites. Development of land management and restoration functions have further advanced conservation outcomes through restored ecological processes, and improved management of threats. Despite positive contributions to biodiversity conservation, several challenges persist, including unequal biodiversity protection and investment in relation to local population socio-economic status, cross-sectorial barriers, governance silos, and inadequate incentives for protection and management. Increasing biodiversity conservation on landholdings under traditional and private land tenure represents an important next step for the City. Upscaling of successful management tools, improving financial incentives for landowners, and adopting a more community centered approach to conservation governance, represent key opportunities for the City.DiscussionWe emphasize the important role that a local government can play in contributing toward broader biodiversity goals and identify opportunities and challenges in the development and application of biodiversity conservation tools at the local government scale, through the lenses of governance, equity and justice, and inclusivity.

BackgroundObscured by the more prevalent discussion of intensification and expansion of agricultural land, the impacts of the abandonment of many grasslands and croplands of the world in recent decades have received limited attention in the literature. Land abandonment is a common phenomenon in the Mediterranean Basin, a global biodiversity hotspot, but little is known about the impacts of this process on biodiversity. To upscale existing case-study insight to a Pan-Mediterranean level, we plan to perform a systematic review of the effects of land abandonment on plant and animal richness and abundance in pastures, arable lands and permanent crops of the Mediterranean Basin. In particular, we ask (1) which taxonomic groups are most affected by land abandonment; (2) whether different spatial and temporal scales of studies influence species richness and abundance outcomes; (3) whether previous land use and current anthropogenic impacts on abandoned lands determine differences in the number and abundance of species; and (4) whether landscape context modifies the impacts.MethodsOur review will be based on searching scientific databases as well as the internet for empirical studies on the effects of land abandonment on biodiversity in the Mediterranean Basin. Study selection follows a three-stage process and includes study quality assessment. Extracted data will be synthesized through meta-analysis. Results will be presented in the form of a quantitative (e.g. figures indicating effect sizes, tables summarizing heterogeneity statistics) and narrative synthesis. Additional aspects will be addressed through meta-regression and sub-group analyses.

The Mediterranean Basin, recognized as a global biodiversity hotspot, harbors a remarkable diversity of grasshoppers, katydids, and crickets, many of which are endemic and potentially contain cryptic lineages. In this study, we generated a comprehensive dataset comprising 1,441 barcodes from 270 identified species within the Ensifera and Caelifera suborders. These were combined with existing data to form a dataset of 2,606 barcodes representing 351 species. We employed Maximum Likelihood (ML) topology reconstruction and applied five species delimitation methods (BIN, ABGD, ASAP, GMYC, and PTP) to detect potential incongruences between Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs) and existing taxonomic classifications. Our analysis revealed that OTUs delimited by these methods corresponded to 71.39% of the evaluated species, with a notably higher congruence in Ensifera (88.53%) compared to Caelifera (52.15%). Across the dataset, we identified 54 lineages comprising cryptic species, indicating significant unrecognized diversity within these groups. Additionally, 21 instances of species being merged into consensus OTUs were observed, suggesting either the need for taxonomic revision or highlighting the limitations of current genetic markers. Among the methods tested, ABGD, particularly with the Kimura two-parameter model, was the most consistent with traditional taxonomy, yielding the highest consensus rates. In contrast, the PTP method exhibited the lowest consensus, often leading to an oversplitting of lineages. These findings underscore the complexity of species delimitation in recently radiated taxa and emphasize the importance of using multiple methodologies to accurately capture biodiversity, especially in regions characterized by a high prevalence of cryptic species.

The Mediterranean Basin is a global biodiversity hotspot, but formal conservation approaches have not been wholly effective to halt species and ecosystem losses in this world region. There is wide agreement that maintaining traditional and diverse land-use systems is key to conserving biodiversity across the Mediterranean region. Biocultural approaches provide a perspective to understand and manage the interplay of nature and culture in various contexts. To develop biocultural systems as positive alternatives to unsustainable land-use systems requires an understanding of the decision-making contexts that enable such approaches. The aim of this synthesis study is therefore to compare how four biocultural conservation systems in the Mediterranean are shaped by values, rules, and knowledge. Our study is based on a synthesis of the literature published on agdal (Morocco), communal forests (Spain), sacred natural sites (Greece), and hima (Lebanon). Our synthesis shows that instrumental, intrinsic, and relational values are all fundamental components of the systems studied. Instrumental values, such as the provision of fodder or firewood, are central, and are often the result of a careful adaptation to the uncertainty inherent to Mediterranean climatic conditions. Systems like agdal and hima have originally been shaped by informal rules (often with the primary motivation to ensure equitable resource use and frequently involving taboos) and were then formalized to varying degrees. All four systems are strongly driven by local knowledge. We conclude that biocultural systems in the Mediterranean represent “people and nature” approaches that support linkages between nature and human well-being. Fostering biocultural conservation in the Mediterranean requires navigating multiple interlinkages between values, rules, and knowledge in decision-making.

Hybridization is one of the key processes shaping lineage diversification, particularly in regions that experienced strong climate oscillations. The alpine biome with its rich history of glacial-interglacial cycles and complex patterns of species distribution shifts offers an excellent system to investigate the impact of gene flow on population dynamics and speciation, important issues for evolutionary biology and biodiversity conservation. In this study, we combined genomic data (DArTseq), chloroplast markers, and morphology to examine phylogenetic relationships and the permeability of species boundaries and their evolutionary outcomes among the alpine extremophilic species of Puccinellia (Poaceae) in the Pamir Mountains, a part of the Mountains of Central Asia biodiversity hotspot. We determined the occurrence of interspecific hybrids between P. himalaica and P. pamirica, which demonstrated almost symmetric ancestry from their parental species and did not show signals of introgression. According to our integrative revision, the natural hybrids between P. himalaica and P. pamirica should be classified as Puccinellia ×vachanica (pro species). Using approximate Bayesian computation for population history inference, we uncovered that P. himalaica hybridized with P. pamirica independently in multiple localities over the Holocene. Hybrids inherited the fine-scale genetic structure from their parental species, which developed these patterns earlier, during the Late Pleistocene. Hybridization had different consequences for the involved parental lineages, likely playing an important role in a continuing decline of P. himalaica in the Pamir Mountains over the Holocene. Our results show that P. himalaica should be considered a critically endangered species in the Pamir Mountains and could also be retreating across its entire range of distribution in High Mountain Asia. Using a comparative phylogeographic framework, we revealed the risk of extinction of a cold-adapted alpine species in a global biodiversity hotspot. This study highlights that genomics could unravel diversity trends under climate change and provides valuable evidence for conservation management.

The Mediterranean basin is a global hotspot for biodiversity, and wetlands are particularly recognized for their role in this hotspot. Moroccan wetlands, which are part of the broader Mediterranean system, provide habitats for endemic, threatened, and migratory species. Despite their recognized importance and the protection of several Moroccan wetlands, natural wetlands continue to be converted into agricultural lands and urban areas.They are facing anthropogenic pressures and losses in area and quality. Although these transformations have occurred, wetlands located in or near urban areas still harbor remarkable avian biodiversity. In this study, we compared the ornithological composition of urban Mediterranean wetlands, Oued Martil and Oued El Maleh (Tetouan, Northern Morocco), with the Ramsar site Merja Zerga, a classified and a protected wetland. The results show that the urban wetlands and the Ramsar site have in common 66% of families and 43% of species, including several species with significant conservation statuses. In the same way, waterbird species richness was comparable across unprotected and protected coastal wetlands. Likewise, urban wetlands of Oued Martil and Oued El Maleh, as well as the Ramsar site, support the same remarkable, heritage and IUCN- listed species. On the other hand, avian species richness was lower in urban wetlands of the Oued Martil and Oued El Maleh compared to the Ramsar site. In particular, fewer passerine were recorded, and the number of wader species was approximately two times lower in urban wetlands. These results suggest that urban wetlands can support rich and diverse bird populations and need to be protected and integrated into conservation efforts. However, they may also reflect signs of habitat degradation or reduced availability of key resources for bird species. More studies on phenology and long-term monitoring are essential to better understand the ecological significance of urban wetlands in Morocco and across the Mediterranean region.

SummaryBiodiversity knowledge gaps and biases persist across low-income tropical regions. Genetic data are essential for addressing these issues, supporting biodiversity research and conservation planning. To assess progress in wildlife genetic sampling within the Philippines, I evaluated the scope, representativeness, and growth of publicly available genetic data and research on endemic vertebrates from the 1990s through 2024. Results showed that 82.3% of the Philippines’ 769 endemic vertebrates have genetic data, although major disparities remain. Reptiles had the least complete coverage but exhibited the highest growth, with birds, mammals, and amphibians following in that order. Species confined to smaller biogeographic subregions, with narrow geographic ranges, or classified as threatened or lacking threat assessments were disproportionately underrepresented. Research output on reptiles increased markedly, while amphibian research lagged behind. Although the number of non-unique authors in wildlife genetics studies involving Philippine specimens has grown steeply, Filipino involvement remains low. These results highlight the uneven and non-random distribution of wildlife genetic knowledge within this global biodiversity hotspot. Moreover, the limited participation of Global South researchers underscores broader inequities in wildlife genomics. Closing these gaps and addressing biases creates a more equitable and representative genetic knowledge base and supports its integration into national conservation efforts aligned with global biodiversity commitments.