The construction of neoliberal subjects through China’s English language education policies

In order to be more competitive in global job market, many countries, such as Japan, have adjusted the education policies for preparing capable talents for globalization. English Language Teaching (ELT) policy in Japan is used as an example of contemporary education policy to illustrate the influence of globalization in education field within a country. The aim of this essay is using the ELT policy in Japan as an example to critically analyze how globalization has influenced the development of current education policy. Positivism has been used to guide the policy-making process.

In order to be more competitive in global job market, many countries, such as Japan, have adjusted the education policies for preparing capable talents for globalization. English Language Teaching (ELT) policy in Japan is used as an example of contemporary education policy to illustrate the influence of globalization in education field within a country. The aim of this essay is using the ELT policy in Japan as an example to critically analyze how globalization has influenced the development of current education policy. Positivism has been used to guide the policy-making process.

Introduction by Robert Kirkpatrick & Thuy Thi Ngoc Bui.- English-in-education Policy and Planning in Bangladesh: A Critical Examination by M. Obaidul Hamid & Elizabeth J. Erling.- English Language Education Policies in the People's Republic of China by Jeffrey Gil.- English Language Education Policy and the Native-speaking English Teacher (NET) Scheme in Hong Kong by Mihyon Jeon.- English Education Policy in India by Hema Ramanathan.- Language Policy in Practice: Reframing the English Language Curriculum in the Indonesian Secondary Education Sector by Handoyo Puji Widodo.- English Language Education Policy in Japan by Gregory Paul Glasgow & Daniel Leigh Paller.- The Impact of English on Educational Policies and Practices in Malaysia by Ria Hanewald.- Local-Global Tension in the Ideological Construction of English Language Education Policy in Nepal by Prem Phyak.- English Language Teaching in Pakistan: Language Policies, Delusions and Solutions by Syed Abdul Manan, Maya Khemlani David & Francisco Perlas Dumanig.- English Language Education in the Philippines: Policies, Problems, and Prospects by Marilu Ranosa Madrunio, Isabel Pefianco Martin & Sterling Miranda Plata.- Singapore's English-knowing Bilingual Policy: A Critical Evaluation by Patrick Ng Chin Leong.- English Education Policies in South Korea: Planned and Enacted by Jeehyae Chung & Taehee Choi.- English Language Policy and Planning in Sri Lanka: A Recent Overview by Dilini Walisundara & Shyamani Hetti arachchi.- Timor-Leste by John Macalister.- English Education Policy in Thailand: Why the Poor Results? By Amrita Kaur, David Young & Robert Kirkpatrick.- Standardizing English for Educational and Socio-economic Betterment - A Critical Analysis of English Language Policy Reforms in Vietnam by Thuy Thi Ngoc Bui & Hoa Thi Mai Nguyen

This chapter examines English language education policies in Indonesia and Timor-Leste by paying particular attention to the linguistic ecologies of the two nations. The chapter argues that English continues to become a prestigious language in the linguistic ecologies of Indonesia and Timor-Leste. The chapter shows that the prestige of English has surpassed that of Indonesian in the nation’s dynamic and polycentric linguistic ecology, ‘superglossia’. Meanwhile, English is currently gaining ascendancy in terms of prestige, and will in some way compete with Portuguese in the near future to sit at the summit of the Timor-Leste linguistic hierarchy. The chapter further asserts that a comprehensive language education policy which caters for indigenous languages alongside English and national languages is required for both countries in order for them to be able to increase engagement with ASEAN member states.

Considering the uncontested global status of English today, overt and covert policies of English language teaching (ELT) have shaped a significant area of broader national language (education) policies. In this study we investigated nine major national policy documents to portray the overall official ELT policies in Iran. The documents were explored through qualitative content analysis in search of manifest statements and conceptual categories that provided educational policy directions. Adopting a view of policy as discourse, we coded statements directly related to ELT and those related to language education, as well as generic statements about all subject areas, which were interpreted to include the teaching and learning of English. The discursive climate of the overall official Iranian ELT policy appeared to be mainly shaped by policy directions focusing on Islamic values, Iranian Revolutionism, and character and morality, along with some language-teaching specifics. The findings may indicate that beyond issues of policy incompleteness, the Iranian official ELT policy may be suffering from policy indeterminacy. We argue that in contexts like Iran, more coherent ELT policies may be needed to account for both the ideological nature of English and its practical applicability in the world today.

This chapter presents different perspectives on, or approaches to, English language teaching (ELT) in the Philippines. It begins with a description of the monolingual bias that is evident in government policies which include the use of English as the language of assessment, especially in national and international tests of English proficiency and literacy. The chapter proceeds with a discussion of three pluralist approaches to English, namely, ‘world Englishes’, ‘multilingualism’, and ‘translanguaging’, that claim to reject this monolingual bias. Language education policies or classroom practices that are informed by each perspective are described. A number of issues about these perspectives in relation to the monolingual bias are likewise raised. The chapter ends by underscoring the agency of Filipino teachers of English who are caught between monolingual and pluralist perspectives on ELT. Three propositions in relation to teacher agency are also put forward.

This chapter focuses on English language policy and education in Thailand. We begin with a description of the linguistic profile of Thailand and the status of English as part of presumed monolingual and monocultural ideologies. We then discuss the current prominent role of English in Thailand and ASEAN, which has resulted in greater emphasis on English language education. The chapter then turns to a detailed investigation of current policy and its adoption of the CEFR (Common European Framework of Reference for Languages) at basic and higher education levels, and reveals the tensions between the multilingual uses of English as a lingua franca across ASEAN and the monolingual Anglophone orientations of current language policy. We highlight the detrimental effects of these Anglophone ideologies on ELT and assessment. The chapter ends with a call for multilingual-oriented policy and practices which reflect the changing roles of English in global contexts, especially in the ASEAN community.

This study aimed to explore the relationship between English language education policy (ELEP) and teacher effectiveness (TE) at grade three senior high schools (G3SHS) in Mashhad, Iran. To this end, the English Language Policy Inventory (ELPI) designed and validated by Khodadady, Arian, and Hosseinabadi (2013) and English Language Teachers’ Attribute Scale (ELTAS) developed and validated by Khodadady, Fakhrabadi and Azar (2012) were administered to 48 teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL) and their 1072 EFL learners. The correlational analysis of results showed that the two ELEP and TE domains correlated significantly with each other. The same analysis revealed significant relationships between Harmonic Curriculum, International Interaction, Internationalizing Native Culture, Methodological Development, International Understanding, All-Compassing Improvement and Functional Organization genera of the ELPI and Qualified, Social, Stimulating, Organized, Proficient, Humanistic and Self-Confident genera of the ELTAS. The findings are discussed from both theoretical and empirical perspectives and suggestions are made for future research.

Similar to other parts of the world, Kurdish speakers of English have been subject to English fever. They have a strong desire to learn and speak English. An army of teachers is currently teaching Kurdish speakers to learn English. However, few of them acquire the required level of English when they move from high school level to university one. This might partly be associated with their attitudes towards not only the English language but the English language policies and practices that are currently adopted. Attitudes towards the English language have been extensively investigated both quantitatively and qualitatively in diversified educational and cultural contexts. Furthermore, a few studies have been conducted to investigate the attitudes of Kurdish students towards the English language, but their attitudes to English language education policies and English language learning purposes have yet remained unknown. Therefore, this study is anchored on investigating Kurdish undergraduate students’ attitudes towards the English language, English language education policies that are currently applied in Iraqi Kurdistan, and students’ purposes for learning English. It further concentrates on the effect of such variables as gender and year of study on attitudes. For this purpose, the study utilized a questionnaire consisting of 42 items on a 6-point Likert scale surveyed online on a sample of 154 students belonging to different ages, genders, years of study, and majors. The analysis of the data showed that Kurdish university students held neutral to mildly positive attitudes to the English language and English learning purposes. Nevertheless, they held slightly positive attitudes towards English language education policies. The study concludes that, although fundamental transformations have been achieved in the past two decades, the neutral attitudes show that efforts are yet to be made to satisfy students’ needs and desires, particularly with regard to the policies and practices that are currently adopted. This study, different from previous ones, reveals students’ attitudes towards English education policies whose findings are significant for English language education policymakers.

This chapter sets out to provide a descriptive, yet critical exploration of the complex nexus of history and policy of English language education (ELE) in Bangladesh. The intention is to combine ‘history’ and ‘policy’ in order to develop a wholesome understanding of ELE policy (ELEP) development process and its impacts in Bangladesh. In reviewing pertinent historical and education policy reports, the analysis identifies a series of influences, a clear indication of conflicts of ideologies deriving from macro-sociopolitics – the imposition of colonisation, the idealism of nationalism, and the emergence of globalisation in the process of developing ELEP in the country. The chapter then explores the outcomes of the tensions informing the current ELE landscape of Bangladesh. The chapter concludes by arguing for a reassessment of the present socio-political and economic context of Bangladesh so that a context-based, inclusive, and appropriate ELEP could be developed to reap and maximise the benefits of ELE in the longer term.

This chapter discusses English language education and educational language policy in the three nations of Indochina: Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. After briefly reviewing history, geography, demographics, and linguistic diversity, the authors of each country study detail the structure of education and the educational language policies in place in the relevant country, giving particular attention to policies supporting the English language. They continue by discussing English language teaching and learning in both formal and non-formal education, with attention to curriculum, pedagogy, textbooks, textbook development, teacher training, and evaluation. They conclude each country study with a brief discussion of anticipated or planned developments in English language policy, teaching, and learning.

Foreign language education policies constitute an important aspect of China’s reconstruction of its linguistic and cultural identities in an increasingly globalized world. China’s English language education policies in the past three decades have undergone fluctuations, which can be roughly categorized into the following stages: (1) the opening up of English education from the late 1970s to the mid-1990s, and related to this, the euphoria for learning English. (2) The speeding up of English education from the mid-1990s to the first decade of the new millennium, and related to this, the anxiety regarding “too much time and too little effect.” (3) The slowing down or losing direction as shown in a recent debate over a proposed English education policy reform from 2013 to 2014. Related to this is the fear that English education will have a negative effect on Chinese language proficiency and cultural identity. These changes have been reflected in and constructed by policy related discourses, including those of the national policy makers, education institutions and experts, and ordinary learners and netizens. The above policy and attitudinal fluctuations over 30 years can be contextualized and interpreted as being emblematic of issues in China’s history over the last 150 years. An ambivalent psychological complex towards self and “the West” is revealed, situated in China’s semi-colonial and semi-feudal history, beginning with the Opium Wars in 1840, when China faced foreign invasions and was forced to open its markets and partially give up sovereignty. It was in that context that the ambivalence was developed, i.e., the strong desire for the English language through which new technologies can be learned to strengthen the nation, and the fear that this foreign language will threaten Chinese identity. A brief historical analysis shows that the status of English in China has been fluctuating for the past 150 years. Such ambivalences and fluctuations have become a “habitus” (Bourdieu, P. Language and symbolic power. (J. B. Thompson Ed.; G. Raymond & M. Adamson Trans.). Cambridge: CUP, 1991), i.e., durable “structuring structures” of the collective mind. English has become a screen with two sides: on one side is projected the Chinese dream of becoming strong; and on the other side is projected the nightmare of losing national identity. This self-perpetuating ambivalence helps to explain the fluctuations of China’s English language education policies. In the context of increased globalization, when English is becoming a de-territorialized resource, the habitual defense mechanism is no longer effective, and it may well hinder national and individual development. The durable yet not eternal habitus can be transformed, and alternative strategies are to be conceived. Instead of a screen, English can be taken as a mirror, from which we can perceive our complex needs, desires, and emotions. With a clear self-perception, we can probably be free from compulsory policy and mood swings, feel more confident about our native cultural identity, and be ready to take on the identity of a “dialogical communicator” (Gao, Lang Intercult Commun 14(1):1–17, 2014) in intercultural communication.

The present chapter which sets a critical perspective delves into the English language education (ELE) policy in Turkey in the light of the innovations that have been proposed by the ministry of education (MoNE) at macro level. The study covers a wide range of topics that shed light into the following issues: history of ELE in Turkey, factors affecting ELE namely; geographical and social dimensions, globalization and internationalization. Moreover, the innovations that have been proposed for ELE and their reflections in practice are also discussed from a critical stance. As a final issue, the problems that have been experienced as a result of the implementation of innovations and possible solutions that might help overcome those hardships are explained from a critical point of view.

This chapter compares and contrasts the language policy and planning in two neighbouring Southeast Asian nations, Malaysia and Negara Brunei Darussalam. In both, people of Malay ethnicity are in the majority. In both, the role of English can be traced back to the colonial period: prior to the formation of Malaysia in 1963, Malaya, Sabah, and Sarawak were British crown colonies, while Brunei was a British protectorate from 1888 until it achieved independence in 1984. Following brief outlines of the historical background and the current language situation, this chapter reviews current language in education policies with particular reference to English. These are then compared and contrasted, and some pointers to future policy directions are discussed.

English language education has a long history in Myanmar (also known as Burma). In accordance with changing political conditions, the status of English and educational policies has changed frequently and abruptly in Myanmar. To understand current English language policies and practice in Myanmar, the chapter first opens the history pages, from the colonial era (1886–1948) to Covid-19 and the Spring Revolution (2020–21). English language education in Myanmar is explored not only through a theoretical and historical lens but also through a personal one. In addition to published documents, literature, and data collected from online social media written in Myanmar (Burmese), the author’s own personal experience in a culture (a Burmese society) is used as a way of expanding understanding of the cultural phenomenon through a personalized, autoethnographic approach.