The concept of Big Four: Road map from snakebite epidemiology to antivenom efficacy

Abstract

Snake envenomation is a life-threatening disease caused by the injection of venom toxins from the venomous snake bite. Snakebite is often defined as the occupational or domestic hazard mostly affecting the rural population. India experiences a high number of envenoming cases and fatality due to the nation's diversity in inhabiting venomous snakes. The Indian Big Four snakes namely Russell's viper (Daboia russelii), spectacled cobra (Naja naja), common krait (Bungarus caeruleus), and saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus) are responsible for majority of the snake envenoming cases and death. The demographic characteristics including occupation, stringent snake habitat management, poor healthcare facilities and ignorance of the rural victims are the primary influencers of high mortality. Biogeographic venom variation greatly influences the clinical pathologies of snake envenomation. The current antivenoms against the Big Four snakes are found to be less immunogenic against the venom toxins emphasizing the necessity of alternative approaches for antivenom generation. This review summarizes the burden of snake envenomation in India by the Big Four snakes including the geographic distribution of snake species and biogeographic venom variation. We have provided comprehensive information on snake venom proteomics that has aided the better understanding of venom induced pathological features, summarized the impact of current polyvalent antivenom therapy highlighting the need for potential antivenom treatment for the effective management of snakebites.