The Comparative Study of Literary vs. Non-literary Text and Iranian EFL Learners’ Performance on Cloze Tests of Inference

The present study aimed to explore whether there is any relationship between the performance of EFL learners on inference demanding tests of (non)literary text and their English language proficiency. Through convenience method of sampling, 30 Iranian senior students of English translation B.A. both of male and female genders, ranging from 19 to 30 years of age took part in the investigation. Once their language proficiency was measured by means of Oxford Placement Test, participants took part in an inferencing test constructed by the researcher consisting of two cloze tests - one non-literary and one literary text. The results of the test of Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient revealed that there was a positive and strong relationship between the learners’ language proficiency and their ability in answering inferencing questions. This study is particularly important as most reading materials are far from being shallow and require deep interpretation.

The present study aimed at investigating the effect of literary texts vs. non-literary texts through critical reading approach on the reading comprehension development of Iranian Intermediate EFL learners. To achieve this goal, the Preliminary English Test (PET) was employed to determine the homogeneity of the participants regarding their proficiency in English. A group of sixty students with scores one standard deviation above and one standard deviation below the mean was selected as the participants of this study who were female learners and their language proficiency level was intermediate. In both groups the critical strategies are Answering Questions, Previewing, Making Predications, Reading between Lines, Analyzing, and Pair Discussion. The difference was that the subjects in the experimental group worked on short stories as literary texts through critical reading approach but the control group worked on journal articles as non-literary texts through critical reading approach. To determine whether there was any significant difference between the performance of experimental and control group ascribed to treatment, a reading comprehension test as post test was administered. After the data were processed, the results showed that there was a statistically significant difference between the mean scores of the experimental and control groups. Thus, the null-hypothesis, saying literary vs. non-literary texts through critical reading approach has no significant effect on the reading comprehension development of Iranian intermediate EFL learners, was rejected.

The present study investigates the comparison of language learning strategies between Iraqi and Iranian EFL learners based on Oxford's model. To accomplish this, 60 BA-level participants—30 Iraqi and 30 Iranian EFL learners—from the Public University in Babylon, Iraq, and the Islamic Azad University in Shiraz, Iran—were given the 5-point Likert scale of 50 questions from Oxford's Strategies Inventory of Language Learning (SILL). They were between the ages of nineteen and twenty-eight. This quantitative and survey study used frequencies, means, standard deviations, and t-scores to quantify the dimensions of language learning strategies (LLS) and compare LLS between Iranian and Iraqi EFL learners. According to descriptive data, all LLSs among Iraqi EFL learners fell into the medium range. However, Iranian EFL students exhibited metacognitive and memory strategies more frequently and moderately. The results also distinguished Iranian and Iraqi EFL students' language learning approaches. According to the study, Iranian learners used different English learning strategies than Iraqi students. To this end, this research can also serve as a reference in language learning strategies and specify the dimensions of LLS used by Iraqi and Iranian EFL learners. The important implication of this research is that if EFL learners and teachers get aware of language learning strategies, they may develop their learning and teaching more easily and successfully.

Reading skills in literary and non-literary texts play a crucial role in shaping students’ comprehensive literacy competence. This study aims to explore assessment practices implemented by Indonesian language teachers at the senior high school level, focusing on various aspects including assessment goals, implementation timing, assessed components, instruments, indicators, techniques, and challenges in evaluating students’ reading abilities for both literary and non-literary texts. A qualitative descriptive-exploratory method was employed, with data collected through questionnaires involving 60 teacher respondents. The findings reveal that teachers possess an adequate understanding of the functions of literary and non-literary texts in instruction and apply diverse assessment approaches—ranging from objective test items to interpretive tasks and presentations. Literary texts are predominantly assessed reflectively and interpretively, while non-literary texts are evaluated using analytical and logical methods. Nevertheless, teachers still encounter several challenges, such as limited time, a lack of valid and reliable instruments, the absence of operational technical guidelines, and difficulties in assessing higher-order thinking skills. These findings highlight the need for systematic support in reading assessment, such as ongoing professional training, genre-based instrument development, and teacher collaboration within learning communities. This study emphasizes the importance of a systematic and collaborative approach to improving reading assessment practices to align with curricular demands and the goals of literacy development

This paper sought to explore the relationship between grammar learning strategy use and language achievement of Iranian high school EFL learners. The participants of the study were 300 students from three different proficiency levels (Elementary, pre-intermediate, and intermediate), 230 of whom completed and returned an Oxford Solution Test, and a Likert-scale Grammar learning strategies questionnaire (GLSQ) containing 35 statements. The participants were divided to the above mentioned proficiency groups based on Oxford placement test categorization and their total GPAs. The results of descriptive statistics, interview session, and rank-ordering indicated that cognitive and social affective strategies were the most frequently grammar strategies used by Iranian EFL learners. The analysis of the quantitative and qualitative data revealed that Iranian high school EFL learners used a variety of learning strategies while learning and using grammar structures; however, the results of one-way ANOVA indicated that there was a significant difference in the frequency of use of grammar learning strategies among different proficiency levels. Additionally, the results of ANCOVA analysis showed that gender did not play a significant role in strategy use. Furthermore, the results of Pearson correlation coefficient indicated that there was a positive relationship between language achievement and grammar strategy use. The findings of the study might provide Iranian EFL teachers and learners with some helpful implications for teaching and testing, and learning grammar strategies respectively at high schools, as well as useful directions for future studies in this domain. Keywords: grammar learning strategies, language proficiency, language achievement, gender

Aims: This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of teacher-generated versus AI-generated corrective feedback on the essay writing skills of Iranian intermediate EFL learners. Study Design: Quasi-experimental design. Place and Duration of Study: Department of TEFL, Islamic Azad University, North Tehran Branch, conducted over a 16-week period in 2025. Methodology: A total of 80 Iranian intermediate EFL learners were selected through convenience sampling and divided into two equal groups: Teacher-Generated Corrective Feedback Group (TGFG, n=40) and AI-Generated Corrective Feedback Group (AGFG, n=40). Both groups participated in 16 instructional sessions, receiving feedback on their essays either from a human instructor or an AI-based application (ChatGPT). Writing performance was assessed using IELTS-based pretests and posttests, evaluated based on content, organization, vocabulary, language use, and mechanics. The 6+1 Traits Writing Rubric was used for scoring, and inter-rater reliability was established. Results: While both groups showed improvement in essay writing performance, the AI-generated feedback group (M = 18.08, SD = 1.32) significantly outperformed the teacher-generated group (M = 16.93, SD = 1.29) on the posttest. An independent-samples t-test indicated a significant difference between the two groups (t(78) = 3.92, P = .000, Cohen’s d = .892), favoring the AI feedback group. Conclusion: The findings suggest that AI-generated corrective feedback is more effective than teacher-generated feedback in improving the essay writing performance of EFL learners. These findings have important implications for future teaching practices, particularly in enhancing learner autonomy and reducing teacher workload in large classrooms. AI tools can serve as a reliable and efficient alternative in writing instruction, particularly in contexts with limited instructional resources. However, their effectiveness may vary depending on learners’ proficiency levels, task complexity, and their familiarity with digital tools.

During the last two decades, Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences with its emphasis on learner variables has been appreciated in language learning. Spatial intelligence, as one domain of the multiple structures of intelligence, which is thought to play a great role in reading, writing, and literacy, particularly in L2 learning, has not received sufficient attention as it deserves. The aim of this study was twofold: (1) to examine the relationship between EFL learners’ spatial intelligence and their performance on cloze tests in general; (2) to determine which variety of cloze tests, analytic or perceptual (based on deletion method), may correlate more strongly with learners’ spatial intelligence. Accordingly, a correlational study was conducted with 41 male Iranian EFL learners at Jihad Daneshgahi Language Center of Tehran University (Iran). Participants’ scores on the spatial intelligence test were first compared with their scores on two cloze tests. Next, the obtained correlations were examined to see the effect of deletion method for cloze tests on the strength of the relationship between the spatial intelligence scores and scores on the cloze tests. Significant correlations (0.61 and 0.56) were found between the variables. The findings emphasize making reconsiderations in using cloze tests in EFL contexts. Further research is also suggested to explore spatial intelligence and its role in language classrooms.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to describe a conceptualization and two‐stage pilot study that explores ways in which fuzzy sets can be used to measure the indexability of literary texts.Design/methodology/approachParticipants provided a subject description for each in a series of literary and nonliterary texts. Each participant was also randomly assigned to one of three tasks: using a visual analog scale to rate the clarity of each text, using a visual analog scale to rate the confidence each participant felt in describing the subject of each text, or sorting the texts from most to least clear without the use of a visual analog scale. Nonparametric statistics and qualitative analysis were used to analyze the data.FindingsParticipants and coders used the visual analog scales successfully. The participants perceived literary texts as less clear than nonliterary texts, and expressed less confidence in their subject description of literary texts than in their descriptions of literary texts. The study found preliminary support for the idea that fuzzy sets can provide a useful theoretical basis for examining the indexability of texts.Originality/valueA measure of the indexability of literary texts could help provide sound theoretical guidance for construction of tools to organize those texts. A structured comparison of literary and nonliterary texts could help to build a theoretical base from which to make practical decisions about whether and how to perform subject analysis on each type of text.

It is believed that EFL learners' positive attitudes highly influence their language success. Students' negative attitudes can be replaced by positive ones and this is partly the art and duty of the teachers. Accordingly, there is a need for EFL teachers to try to promote their students' positive attitudes. Different factors including EFL teachers' characteristics contribute to the development of EFL learners' positive attitudes. This study explored the relationship between Iranian EFL teachers' cognitive flexibility and Iranian EFL learners' attitudes towards English language learning. To achieve this aim, a sample of 357 Iranian EFL teachers and 1785 Iranian EFL learners participated for gathering the data. To measure EFL teachers' cognitive flexibility and EFL learners' attitudes as demanded for the study, Iranian EFL teachers filled out Cognitive Flexibility Scale and Iranian EFL learners completed Attitude towards English Language Learning Questionnaire in terms of Behavioral, Cognitive and Emotional aspects. For data analysis Pearson Product-Moment Correlation was run. The results showed a significant relationship between Iranian EFL teacher's CF and their students' attitudes towards English language learning. The results of this study can provide hints for all those who involve in EFL teaching and learning to think about how to integrate CF into EFL educational policy as well as how to promote it as a vital mental capability in EFL teachers and learners. DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n6s1p34

A number of studies on apology strategies have investigated apologies cross-culturally. Rarely have apology strategies been scrutinized in Iranian context of EFL learning; nor have the respondents' gender that trigger such apologies been taken into account. This study was aimed to compare Iranian male and female EFL learners in terms of apology strategies. The participants were 50 Iranian EFL learners: (25 male, 25 female) both graduate and undergraduate students studying at Islamic Azad University, Najafabad branch. Discourse completion tests (DCT) were used in this study. In addition, Cohen and Olshtain's (1981) model was used for the classification of the different types of apology strategies used by EFL learners. It was found that the apology strategies of the first class, namely illocutionary force indicating devices (IFIDs), were the most commonly used strategies by Iranian EFL learners. Indeed, 67.48% of the entire number of the strategies used by EFL learners belonged to this category. Around 15.14% of the strategies are offer for repair by Iranian EFL learners, while the remaining strategies were scarcely used by Iranian EFL learners. In terms of gender, the results of a chi-square test showed that there was no statistically significant difference between male and female EFL learners with regard to their use of apology strategies: χ (10) = 2.69, p = .98.

This study aimed to explore any type and level of association between Iranian EFL learners’ proficiency level and their intercultural sensitivity on the one hand, and the possible relation between vocabulary knowledge and sensitivity to cultural differences on the other. To this end, Oxford Quick Placement Test (OQPT) was administered to 220 EFL leaners. Based on the results of this test, a homogenized sample of 150 EFL learners (70 male and 80 female) at intermediate and upper-intermediate levels was selected. Afterwards, the participants took Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT) developed by Nation, and validated by Webb, Sasao, and Balance. Finally, Intercultural Sensitivity Scale (ISS) by Chen & Starosta was administered. The results of Pearson correlation analyses revealed a statistically significant correlation between the participants' proficiency level and their intercultural sensitivity. The results of regression analyses also indicated that language proficiency contributes as much as 55.4 percent to the prediction of level of intercultural sensitivity. Moreover, a significant positive correlation was detected between EFL learners’ L2 vocabulary knowledge and their intercultural sensitivity level. Further, the results revealed that Iranian EFL learners’ L2 vocabulary knowledge can offer contributions up to 17.3 percent to the prediction of intercultural sensitivity level. These findings can offer prominent implications for all practitioners, material developers, and EFL instructors who are primarily preoccupied with linguistic competence. The results can motivate them to consider intercultural sensitivity as a complementary element to EFL learners’ linguistic knowledge, as well as their communicative commands.

This study aimed at investigating the effect of using Telegram stickers on EFL learners’ vocabulary learning. To this end, 60 Iranian intermediate EFL learners (30 males, 30 females) at Islamic Azad University, Shahreza Branch studying in the second semester of the academic year 2016-2017 were selected through the convenience sampling method. They were then assigned randomly to the experimental and control groups. Then, a pretest was administrated to measure the learners’ vocabulary knowledge in both groups. The experimental group took their lessons via Telegram while the control group experienced the conventional teaching techniques. After the intervention period, an approved post-test was administered to both groups in order to check the participants’ possible progress. The statistical analysis of the scores indicated that teaching vocabulary through Telegram stickers could lead to outstanding advantages for the learners. In other words, social networking had a positive impact on learning new vocabulary items among Iranian EFL learners. Findings have illuminative implications for language learners and teachers as well as materials developers.

Reviewed by: Shakespeare's Neighbors: Theory Matters in the Bard and his Contemporaries Yaakov Akiva Mascetti Rocco Coronato , Shakespeare's Neighbors: Theory Matters in the Bard and his Contemporaries. New York: University Press of America, 2001. 194 pp. In the preface to Shakespeare's Neighbors Rocco Coronato writes that his work is composed of essays "orchestrated into a choir of different styles and tones," with "no point to make, no thesis to defend, no relation to prove" (ix). The critic's methodology and theoretical background do not present themselves within the traditional and unnerving overtones of the "falsely positivist faith in a thesis to be proven" (ix) but provide a refreshing alternative to the repeated interposition of what Terry Eagleton calls an "ungainly bulk" between the reader and the text, "between product and consumer."1 Instead of being a "handmaiden to literature," a mediator of an otherwise incomprehensible fabric of thoughts and feelings of the past, most contemporary translations of William Shakespeare's thought have consciously and fervently mingled particles of their "own mass"2 with the object of their hermeneutic mediation. The consequential "unspeakable crime," as Eagleton calls it,3 which Coronato delineates and disclaims in the brilliant theoretical preface to his book is the illegitimate and violent "appropriation" of the text by the critic. The stance assumed by the author is that of an orchestra director who elicits from the chosen texts no music at all. Between the critic and the text lies, in other words, an unnerving region of silence, combining both interaction and distinction. While Coronato does confess, as we all do when polishing our hermeneutic tools before engaging in textual dissection, that his essays do rest on theory, he claims that his "chapters ultimately try to reach a point where theory itself is absent, a place of suspension where the interrogation of words enhances how the literary text may be read through the partially fading connotations of those self-same words" (ix). The enlightening statement Coronato makes is that his interest as a literary scholar is not on "what did indeed occur" in the composition of a text within the complex fabric of contemporary discourses and language games, but in what "did not occur" or better "what might have occurred" (ix). The void, or [End Page 173] space of absence separating the modern reader from the Renaissance text allows, to a certain extent, a productive series of speculations on the way a certain text is not rather than is. Coronato's method derives from the "thick" Oxbridge school of archaeological recovering of contemporary discourses, aimed at the reconstruction (as thick —in the Geertz sense of the word —as possible) of the possible range of intentionality and meaning available to a specific actor in a specific network of language games. While endeavoring to undermine the Kuhnian abyss that separates the modern literary critic from the Shakespearean paradigm, with his theory of "neighboring silence" Coronato produces something similar to a musical counterpoint, in which he leaves the reader doubtful of her own assumptions and hermeneutical efforts, while still unwilling to relinquish the yoke of an "interrogation of [the text's] words" (ix). The inquiry into the problematic concepts of meaning and intention of a text climaxes, for Coronato, at a point where "theory itself is absent," and in which the attention of the reader is displaced between "Shakespeare" and his "neighbors," between "literary and non-literary texts" (ix). Disrupting the complex "networks of meaning" triggered around the literary text by "clusters of non-literary" sources, and turning away from this "connoted nebula of meaning," allows Coronato to displace the attention of his reader from Shakespeare and to structure his work as a "protracted indwelling on the outskirts of a star" (ix). A closer look at two of the book's chapters will help exemplify the critic's methodology. In "A Descent into Richard III," the documented thickness of Coronato's brilliant research into the confessional doctrines of Shakespeare's time, Catholic and Protestant, and his admirable knowledge of Late-Mediaeval and Renaissance tenets of self-accusation serve to shape the theoretical agenda of his work: suspension and interruption, instead of penetration and violation. His intention, in fact...

The urge behind the current study was to argue for the development of critical thinking in language learners as an important element in EFL classes. A host of ways such as explicit teaching of critical thinking skills and using special programs have been hypothesized to improve learners' critical thinking ability. As a contribution to the current attempts to implant critical thinking in teaching and learning processes, the present study proposed employing literary texts in reading comprehension classes. To attain this goal, firstly, 34 learners were targeted as the participants of the study. Next, the pre-test of the study including a critical thinking test and a reading comprehension test was administered. Based on the results of the pretest, the participants were assigned into two homogeneous groups- experimental group and control group. Subsequently, both groups went through a 15-session reading comprehension course. The materials for the experimental group were literary texts extracted from different literary books and short stories. On the other hand, the materials for the control group were non-literary texts in the reading comprehension sections of books such as Interchange, Topnotch and Spectrum series. The same teaching method emphasizing critical thinking skills was used for teaching both groups. At the end of the course, a post-test including a critical thinking test and a reading comprehension test was administered to assess learners' critical thinking and reading comprehension. The findings of the study revealed that literary texts, as they require imaginative and creative thinking and are rich in reasoning and inference, can serve teachers tremendously to improve learners’ critical thinking ability. The results of the study have significant implications for teachers, researchers and material developers.

One of the most important language skills affecting students' success in academic settings is reading comprehension and the ability to read fluently in a second language. Japanese EFL learners' less than satisfactory performance in standard English tests led Shinozuka, Mizusawa, and Shibata (2014) to design the read-aloud method. This study investigated the effectiveness of this newly designed method on Iranian EFL Learners' reading comprehension. The aforementioned method with its high priority on reading aloud enjoy four main activities: chunked reading practice, read-aloud practice, cloze test, and concurrent read-aloud and summarization. Participants of this study, selected through convenience sampling, were 140 undergraduate students whose English reading comprehension was considered poor based on the pretest. Then, the subjects were assigned in two groups of control (N=40) and experimental (N=100). The subjects in experimental group received 8 teaching sessions, while the control group received no specific training. Using a pretest-posttest design we attempted to see if read-aloud method turns of to affect our subjects' reading ability level. Therefore, some T-tests were run. The results of the statistical analyses demarcated that the experimental group significantly outperformed the control group in the posttest. The pedagogical implication of this study is that ESL/EFL instructors can implement the read-aloud method in their classes to promote their students' reading comprehension.