The cognitive underpinnings of irony comprehension: Fluid intelligence but not working memory modulates processing

The development of irony comprehension

FIGURE 1. The Atkinson and Shiffrin Model of memory is diagramed in the gray panel. Sensory information is perceived and suppressed via selective attention processes, then briefly held in the limited-capacity modality-specific sensory register. Information enhanced by selective attention enters into short term memory (STM). The process of rehearsal (maintenance) can sustain information in STM. Information in STM is automatically encoded (stored, consolidated) into long term memory (LTM). Although flawed, this model continues to provide a simple and easy approach to understanding memory. Assumptions that proved to be inconsistent with research included that any information in STM will transfer to LTM and that STM is required

An account of the relationship between fluid intelligence and complex learning in considering storage capacity and executive attention

Theory of mind and irony comprehension in children with cerebral palsy

Relations among fluid intelligence, sensory discrimination and working memory in middle to late childhood – A latent variable approach

Studies focusing on the comprehension of figurative language among schizophrenia patients (SZ) reveal their difficulties comprehending such language and their tendency to interpret it literally. The present study investigated hemispheric processing and comprehension of irony in 16 SZ patients and 18 typically developing (TD) adults. Two experimental tasks were used: an online divided visual field experiment and an offline irony questionnaire. The results show an atypical reversal of hemispheric processing of irony in SZ patients as compared to TD adults. While the TD group demonstrated a right hemisphere advantage in processing irony, SZ patients demonstrated a left hemisphere advantage. Greater comprehension of irony was associated with decreased negative symptoms. In addition, under conditions that not involving a time restriction, the SZ patients’ performance improved. Our findings reinforce those of previous studies suggesting that brain lateralization is atypical in SZ patients.

Objective To explore the influence of visual working memory contents on visual function and fluid intelligence. Methods 42 subjects were randomly divided into three groups: controll group including 17 people who had no training, working memory based on Gabor vision group including 13 people and standard working memory group including 12 people who received the N-back working memory training for 15 days, and lasted half an hour in every day.The contrast sensitivity was recorded and measured using OPTEC6500, and the fluid intelligence was measured with the Raven's advanced progressive matrices before and after training. Results In the Gabor working memory group, there were salient gains in contrast sensitivity(respectively(1.48±0.26)log, (1.87±0.13)log, P 0.05), the fluid intelligence increased significantly(respectively(11.25±1.91), (13.00±1.86), P 0.05)and in fluid intelligence(respectively(11.41±1.87), (11.58±1.94), P>0.05) between pre- and post-test. Conclusion Working memory training based on Gabor vision can enhance the subjective perception of visual stimuli and improve the behavioral effect of visual contrast sensitivity, but the visual working memory contents do not affect the migration effect of working memory training on fluid intelligence. Key words: Visual working memory contents; Visual function; Fluid intelligence; Visual contrast sensitivity

ABSTRACTThere are several studies showing that executive functions such as working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility are related to reading abilities. However, most of these studies did not simultaneously take different executive functions and intelligence into account. Therefore, the aim of our study was to investigate if working memory, inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and fluid intelligence uniquely contribute to reading. Furthermore, we tested the hypothesis that reading comprehension and reading speed are correlated but separable reading abilities with different relations to other cognitive functions. To test this assumption, we examined if executive functions and fluid intelligence unequally relate to reading comprehension and reading speed. A total of 186 school children (mean age = 9.31 years) participated in our study and performed a complex span task (working memory), task switching (cognitive flexibility), a stroop-like task (inhibition), raven matrices (fluid intelligence), a reading speed task and three reading comprehension tasks. Structural equation modeling (SEM) showed that working memory, inhibition, cognitive flexibility and fluid intelligence differently contributed to reading speed and reading comprehension. Working memory, inhibition and fluid intelligence were related to reading speed, indicating that a higher working memory capacity, better inhibitory abilities and higher fluid intelligence were associated with higher reading speed. Moreover, cognitive flexibility and fluid intelligence were related to reading comprehension, suggesting that higher cognitive flexibility and fluid intelligence were associated with better reading comprehension. Thus, our results point to differential contributions of executive functions to reading comprehension and reading speed.

Working memory and fluid intelligence in young children

In recent years, research on the effectiveness of cognitive training has become increasingly popular. These studies are conducted across all age groups, including both typically developing individuals and those from clinical populations. However, their results remain inconclusive. The purpose of the present study was to verify the effectiveness of executive attention (EA) training for children in the period of middle childhood and of the transfer of the training effects onto non-trained tasks engaging working memory (WM) and fluid intelligence (Gf). The sample consisted of 180 typically developing children from two age groups: 4- and 6-year-olds. The children were divided into three research groups: the Training Group (EA training, 14 sessions), the Active Control Group (naming objects, 14 sessions), and the Passive Control Group (lack of activity). In the Training Group, the computer version of the adaptive EA training was used. WM and Gf were assessed in each group in the pre-test and post-test. The obtained data indicate the existence of asymmetry in the scope of training effects. EA training leads to a higher improvement in the correctness of performing tasks in 6-year-old children than in 4-year-old children (F = 11.603; p < 0.001; η2p = 0.167). On the other hand, the transfer effect on Gf is greater in the group of 4-year-olds compared to 6-year-olds (F = 4.278; p = 0.015; η2p = 0.047), and the scope of transfer to WM is the same in both age groups (F = 0.772; p = 0.464; η2p = 0.009). The obtained results indicate the effectiveness of executive attention training in children in these age groups. The results suggest that older children benefit more from practicing specific cognitive skills. In comparison, the far transfer mechanisms of training effects seem stronger in younger children.

The purpose of this study was to assess whether the differential effects of working memory (WM) components (the central executive, phonological loop, and visual-spatial sketchpad) on math word problem-solving accuracy in children (N = 413, ages 6-10) are completely mediated by reading, calculation, and fluid intelligence. The results indicated that all three WM components predicted word problem solving in the nonmediated model, but only the storage component of WM yielded a significant direct path to word problem-solving accuracy in the fully mediated model. Fluid intelligence was found to moderate the relationship between WM and word problem solving, whereas reading, calculation, and related skills (naming speed, domain-specific knowledge) completely mediated the influence of the executive system on problem-solving accuracy. Our results are consistent with findings suggesting that storage eliminates the predictive contribution of executive WM to various measures Colom, Rebollo, Abad, & Shih (Memory & Cognition, 34: 158-171, 2006). The findings suggest that the storage component of WM, rather than the executive component, has a direct path to higher-order processing in children.

Does the modality of measures influence the relationship among working memory, learning and fluid intelligence?

Fluid intelligence is one of the general intelligence types originally proposed by Cattell(1963), which refers to the innate ability of analytically solving novel problems and logically identifying new patterns and relationships. Increasing evidence has shown that cognitive training, especially those aiming at enhancing working memory, can significantly improve fluid intelligence. Moreover, central executive functions, especially working memory updating, were reported to positively correlate with individual intelligence. Thus, it is of great theoretical and practical significance to investigate whether working memory training can improve fluid intelligence. Recent studies have shown that, after short-term working memory training, performance in fluid intelligence tests, including running memory task and n-back paradigm, was improved both in adults and school-aged children. It is therefore suggested that the transfer of an improved working memory updating ability contributed to the reported training effects. However, there remain 2 major unsolved problems. On the one hand, although training has been reported effective for adults and school-aged children, few studies have focused on pre-school children. On the other hand, the demonstration of long-term effects was unreliable, because the reported studies either failed to examine lasting effects or lacked time for confirmation.In our study, 96 children aged 4-5 from one kindergarten participated in the experiment. They were randomly selected from 3 classes and assigned to 3 groups- experimental group, control group 1, and control group 2. Participants in experimental group were trained for 15 minutes per day for a period of 14 days using an n-back working memory training program displayed on tablet computers. In this program, participants were shown a series of stimuli and asked to judge whether the current stimulus is the same as the one displayed before the previous n items. As n increased, the task difficulty increased, resulting in higher demands of working memory. Each participant started training at 1-back level with n being continuously adjusted based on their performance. To account for the possibility that better fluid IQ performance is essentially due to attention improvement, participants in control group 1 played the Fruit Ninja game for the same period of time, which was designed to yield comparable attention improvements. For control group 2, children received no training. Parallel versions of Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices(SPM) and the Test of Nonverbal Intelligence(TONI-4) were used to assess participants' fluid intelligence in pretest, posttest and a follow-up test 6 months after training respectively. All experimental manipulations and the data analysis were designed and performed double-blinded. Results indicated that, after 14-day training, participants' task performance in the training task was significantly improved. Children in experimental group significantly outperformed 2 other control groups in the posttest, which remained equally significant 6 months after training. As task motivation and attitude were balanced, our results were convincing in demonstrating training effects. In conclusion, our results proved that the n-back working memory task can efficiently improve kindergarten children's fluid intelligence, whose effect is sustainable in the long term.

The article provides an overview of modern works devoted to the study of the relationship between fluid intelligence and working memory. Recently, the world of psychological science has been actively discussing the topic of fluid intelligence and its impact on the academic achievements in childhood. One of the main cognitive characteristics most clearly associated with fluid intelligence is working memory. Working memory is a complex integrative function, in the implementation of which short-term and long-term memory, as well as executive control of attention, are involved. Until now, the debatable question remains, which of the components of working memory is most closely related to fluid intelligence. A number of studies conclude that the role of short-term memory is predominant, while in others executive control is called the most important component. A special place in the study of the relationship between working memory and fluid intelligence is occupied by scientific works which raise the question of the possibilities of improvement of fluid intelligence using working memory training series. In a number of training experiments, it was possible to obtain an improvement in the participants' fluid intelligence indicators after a series of working memory trainings.

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a psychological condition characterized by inattention and hyperactivity. Cognitive deficits are commonly observed in ADHD patients, including impaired working memory, processing speed, and fluid intelligence, the three of which are theorized to be closely associated with one another. In this study, we aimed to determine if decreased fluid intelligence was associated with ADHD, and was mediated by deficits in working memory and processing speed. This study tested 142 young adults from the general population on a range of working memory, processing speed, and fluid intelligence tasks, and an ADHD self-report symptoms questionnaire. Results showed that total and hyperactive ADHD symptoms correlated significantly and negatively with fluid intelligence, but this association was fully mediated by working memory. However, inattentive symptoms were not associated with fluid intelligence. Additionally, processing speed was not associated with ADHD symptoms at all, and was not uniquely predictive of fluid intelligence. The results provide implications for working memory training programs for ADHD patients, and highlight potential differences between the neuropsychological profiles of ADHD subtypes.