The Case for Selective Non-Transparency in AI-Mediated Work: A Workers Rights Framework

We examined whether the reason offered for electronic performance monitoring (EPM) influenced participants' performance, stress, motivation, and satisfaction. Participants performed a data-entry task in one of five experimental conditions. In one condition, participants were not electronically monitored. In the remaining conditions, participants were electronically monitored but the explanation varied. One group was told that they would be electronically monitored but were given no explanation. Another group was told that EPM would be used to research factors associated with performance. In the developmental condition, participants were told that EPM would be used to provide them with feedback to improve performance, and in the administrative condition, participants were informed that EPM would be used to distribute rewards and punishments. Administrative condition participants had higher motivation and performance yet relatively low stress and dissatisfaction levels. Thus, EPM may enhance performance on simple, repetitive tasks without necessarily producing negative outcomes.

In the digital era, in order to improve organizational performance and achieve high-quality development, more and more modern enterprises begin to use electronic performance monitoring, and the accompanying work pressure directly affects employees' role behavior. However, the existing research on electronic performance monitoring is still in the stage of its concept definition, theoretical basis and influencing factors, especially the research on the influence mechanism of electronic performance monitoring on employee role behavior is very scarce. Based on the work resource-requirement model and stress cognitive evaluation theory, this paper discusses the double-edged sword effect of two dimensions of electronic performance monitoring on employees' role behavior, and analyzes the mediating role of work stress perception and the regulating role of monitoring transparency. Through a questionnaire survey of 330 employees, a total of 308 valid questionnaires were collected. The empirical results show that: (1) Developmental electronic performance monitoring has a significant positive impact on employees' role behavior; (2) Preventive electronic performance monitoring has a significant positive impact on employees' in-role behavior and a significant negative impact on employees' out-of-role behavior. (3) Challenging pressure plays an intermediary role between developmental electronic performance monitoring and employees' in-role behavior. (4) Obstructive stress plays an intermediary role between preventive electronic performance monitoring and employee role behavior; (5) Monitoring transparency positively regulates the relationship between developmental electronic performance monitoring and challenging pressure; (6) Monitoring transparency negatively regulates the relationship between preventive electronic performance monitoring and obstructive stress. The research results verify the double-edged sword effect of electronic performance monitoring on employees' role behavior.

The effects of electronic performance monitoring on stress: Locus of control as a moderator variable

Electronic performance monitoring (EPM) technologies are widely used by organizations, but research has shown that workers feel EPM is unacceptable when it violates their needs for autonomy and transparency. These negative consequences of EPM have the potential to contribute to broader issues of workplace inequality, such that more vulnerable workers are disproportionately affected. Reasoning about how worker status may affect perceived autonomy and transparency with regard to EPM led to the prediction that workers with lower socioeconomic status [SES] (education and income) and job status (job zone, job security, tenure) experience more EPM that they perceive to be unacceptable (perceived unacceptable EPM [EPM-U]). Additionally, we explored whether workers endorse justifications for EPM based on consent, transparency, and autonomy differentially based on SES and job status. Results from a sample of 267 diverse workers showed that tenure predicted EPM-U, but other indicators of SES and job status did not. Supplementary analyses examining different operationalizations of perceived EPM acceptability as outcomes also supported the effect of tenure. On average, participants endorsed the consent and transparency EPM justifications at a high rate but not the autonomy justification, and status differences did not affect these rates. Results showed that workers in general feel that EPM is only sometimes acceptable, depending on how the organization justifies it. We discuss theoretical implications for technology in the workplace, practical implications regarding how EPM should be implemented in ways that benefit all workers, and suggestions for future research.

Electronic performance monitoring (EPM) technologies are widely used by organizations, but research has shown that workers feel EPM is unacceptable when it violates their needs for autonomy and transparency. These negative consequences of EPM have the potential to contribute to broader issues of workplace inequality, such that more vulnerable workers are disproportionately affected. Reasoning about how worker status may affect perceived autonomy and transparency with regard to EPM led to the prediction that workers with lower socioeconomic status [SES] (education and income) and job status (job zone, job security, tenure) experience more EPM that they perceive to be unacceptable (perceived unacceptable EPM [EPM-U]). Additionally, we explored whether workers endorse justifications for EPM based on consent, transparency, and autonomy differentially based on SES and job status. Results from a sample of 267 diverse workers showed that tenure predicted EPM-U, but other indicators of SES and job status did not. Supplementary analyses examining different operationalizations of perceived EPM acceptability as outcomes also supported the effect of tenure. On average, participants endorsed the consent and transparency EPM justifications at a high rate but not the autonomy justification, and status differences did not affect these rates. Results showed that workers in general feel that EPM is only sometimes acceptable, depending on how the organization justifies it. We discuss theoretical implications for technology in the workplace, practical implications regarding how EPM should be implemented in ways that benefit all workers, and suggestions for future research.

Employee stress and health complaints in jobs with and without electronic performance monitoring

The threat of electronic performance monitoring: Exploring the role of leader-member exchange on employee privacy invasion

Purpose Advances in electronic performance monitoring (EPM) have raised employees’ concerns regarding the invasion of privacy and erosion of trust. On the other hand, EPM promises to improve performance and processes. This paper aims to focus on how the alignment of EPM design and organizational culture through effective organizational mechanisms can address privacy concerns, and, hence, positively affect employees’ perception toward technology. Design/methodology/approach Based on a theoretical lens extending two conceptual frameworks, a qualitative approach was used to analyze interview data collected from a comparative case study of two organizations in the USA and Qatar within the oil and gas sector. These two contexts were selected to emphasize the cross-cultural and organizational differences in employees’ acceptance of EPM. Findings The study revealed that national and corporate cultures affected employees’ perception and acceptance of monitoring in both countries. Because of diversity, though EPM was better accepted in Qatar, as they are an easy way to enforce standardization and to push employees to adapt to a dominating corporate culture. Conversely, in the USA where culture is more innovation-oriented, organizational mechanisms shifted the perceptions of EPM to being mean to obtain feedback rather than to impose standards. Research limitations/implications This qualitative study is based on a descriptive comparative case study of two organizations with two cultural contexts. The limited sample size and cross-sectional nature of data may need to be extended to a larger cultural scope that is observed over a longer period to safely generalize the findings. Practical implications Decision-makers in multinational corporations with different cultural backgrounds may benefit of this study’s outcomes, as it emphasizes the importance of the fit between EPM designs and the cultural settings. Furthermore, organizations aiming to conduct analytics on EPM data have to justify and prove its benefits to employees to facilitate acceptance. Social implications The study shows that employees in Qatar have a different cultural frame of reference in their perception of fairness and ethics than their counterparts in the USA because of changes in the meaning of social relations, personal goals and behavioral norms. Originality/value The originality of this study lays in its empirical validation of a composite framework examining both national and corporate cultures on employees’ reactions to EPM systems. It also proves the critical importance of organizational mechanisms to align the EPM design with the organization cultural settings.

ABSTRACTWith the emergence of digital technologies, electronic performance monitoring (EPM) is becoming more prevalent in the Asian workplace. However, the consensus on EPM and Asian culture has not been updated with technological advancements. This study investigates the impact of the dualistic functions of EPM on employee creativity, considering power distance within the framework of the job demands‐resources model. Based on a sample of 276 employee‐colleague dyads from a Chinese company, we found that for employees with high (vs. low) power distance orientation, the positive impact of developmental EPM on employee creativity through harmonious passion is attenuated, as the job resources provided by developmental EPM, which require autonomy from employees, are perceived as psychological burdens. Conversely, the negative impact of deterrent EPM on employee creativity through obsessive passion is amplified, as the job demands imposed by deterrent EPM are seen as duties to be adhered to. This study sheds light on the crucial role that cultural orientation plays in the effectiveness of EPM and highlights the necessity for managers to consider cultural factors when implementing EPM in the digital era.

AI governance began to emerge as a focal point of discourse in Korea from the mid 2010s. Since then, multiple government and public bodies have released guidelines for AI governance, and various tech companies have announced their own AI ethics and governance principles. Beyond its borders, Korea has also actively participated in efforts to establish international norms and guidelines on AI governance. These developments were in part propelled by events that increased public awareness of the importance of trustworthy AI. This has also led to numerous legislative proposals that purport to increase technical and legal checks on such systems. At the same time, Korea has maintained its emphasis on the promotion of new technologies as a fundamental principle of legislative policy. Pursuing the dual goals of spurring innovation in the field of AI while at the same time ensuring its safety has led to confusion and, in some cases, incongruity within the AI governance framework in Korea. The Korean experience sheds light on factors that can influence the trajectory of a jurisdiction's AI governance, including public awareness of AI's potential for both benefit and harm, and the existing legislative and policy framework for governing technology.

In the context of the digital era, many enterprises have invested in the wave of digital transformation. Electronic performance monitoring (EPM), as an effective digital management tool for enterprise digital transformation, profoundly influences the innovative behavior of employees while improving enterprise management efficiency. Nowadays, an increasing number of organizations are actively adopting employee performance management systems to motivate employees and achieve organizational performance goals, fostering high-quality development. However, the influencing mechanism on how electronic performance monitoring affects organizational employee innovation is unclear. Based on the social exchange theory, this study conducted empirical analyses on 265 questionnaire surveys collected online from employees of Chinese enterprises in the financial, Internet, and manufacturing industries using SPSS 27.0 and MPLUS 8.3 software. Hierarchical regression analysis and the Bootstrap method were employed to verify the mechanisms through which developmental electronic performance monitoring influences employee innovative behavior. The study finds that: developmental electronic performance monitoring positively impacts employee innovative behavior. Leader-member exchange partially mediates the relationship between developmental electronic performance monitoring and employee innovative behavior. Power distance positively moderates the relationship between leader-member exchange and employee innovative behavior. The findings of this study expand the existing research on the influence mechanism of developmental electronic performance monitoring on employee innovative behavior and offer practical implications for enterprises aiming to effectively utilize electronic performance monitoring to foster employee innovation.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-12326-7.

This study examined performance effects of using electronic performance monitoring (EPM) and feedback to induce compliance with speed and accuracy standards in a data entry task. The study focused on subjects who had difficulty meeting a preestablished data entry speed standard. Subjects performed a data‐entry task for 3 days. On the 1st (baseline) day, no performance standards were imposed, and all subjects were instructed to work at their normal speed and accuracy levels. For the 2nd and 3rd days of the experiment, subjects were assigned at random to one of two groups. In an experimental group, EPM and feedback were used to induce compliance with preestablished speed and accuracy standards. In a control group, subjects were unaware of EPM and received no feedback; they were instructed to continue working at their normal speed and accuracy levels. The introduction of EPM work management in the experimental group led to significant increases in data‐entry speed that were accompanied by significant increases in data‐entry errors. In addition, data‐entry errors produced by experimental subjects increased significantly over time during the workdays in which EPM work management was employed. These effects are discussed in terms of relevant research on goal setting and feedback utilization. The results suggest that when performance standards and feedback that emphasize speed more than accuracy are applied in EPM‐managed work settings, speed increments may be offset by decrements in work quality.

Electronic Performance Monitoring and sustained attention: Social facilitation for modern applications

Amid the accelerating process of digital transformation, electronic performance monitoring has become an essential tool in organizational management. As a process that utilizes information technology to observe, record, and analyze employees’ work behaviors and performance, electronic performance monitoring not only enhances organizational efficiency and optimizes decision-making support but also exerts a profound influence on employees’ psychological states and behavioral responses. This paper systematically reviews the conceptual evolution, measurement methods, and related research progress of electronic performance monitoring. The findings reveal that the definition of electronic performance monitoring has evolved dynamically from a “technological tool” to an “organizational practice,” and its measurement approaches have developed from a single-dimensional to a multi-dimensional perspective, encompassing aspects such as monitoring purpose, monitoring intensity, and monitoring feedback. Existing empirical studies indicate that different types of electronic performance monitoring, such as developmental and preventive monitoring, have distinct impacts on employees’ job performance, innovative behavior, and psychological responses. Overall, developmental monitoring tends to foster positive behaviors and creativity, whereas preventive monitoring may trigger psychological resistance and counterproductive work behaviors. This review provides a theoretical foundation for understanding the dual-edged effects of electronic performance monitoring and lays the groundwork for developing localized measurement instruments and exploring its underlying mechanisms in future research.

This article discusses empirical evidence regarding the effect of electronic performance monitoring on job design and stress. It was assumed that electronic performance monitoring would have both direct and indirect effects on worker stress (Carayon, 1993). Electronic performance monitoring could indirectly affect worker stress because of its influence on job design. Data from two studies show that electronic performance monitoring seems to affect job design and worker stress. In the first study, monitored employees reported different levels of job design, but not of worker stress, as compared to nonmonitored employees. In the second study, monitored employees reported more negative perceptions of their working conditions and more stress than nonmonitored employees. Specific characteristics of electronic performance monitoring, such as completeness and comparison of ratings among coworkers, were found to be related to job design and worker stress. The results tend to confirm that EPM has an indirect effect on worker stress via job design.