THE BIOGRAPHY BETWEEN TEXTUALITY AND COMMITMENT

Edebi eserin yirminci yüzyılın ilk yarısında Yeni Eleştiri içerisinde otonom ve kurgusal varlık kazanma talebi, yorumlanması hususunda tarihsellikle bağını radikal biçimde koparır. Aynı yüzyılın ikinci yarısında ise “okurun tarihselliği”ne dikkat çeken Alımlama Estetiği ve “metnin tarihselliği, tarihin metinselliği” kavramlarıyla anılagelen Yeni Tarihselcilik, Yeni Eleştiri sonrası bastırılan tarihsel bilince dönüş çabaları arasında anlamlı bir noktada durur. Ancak her iki yaklaşımda da edebi metinleri anlamanın tarihselliğinin, okurun yahut metnin tarihselliği üzerinden şekillendirilmesinin ağır bastığı görülür. Bu yazıda, ortaya çıkan bu durumun, edebi metinleri anlamanın çift yönlü tarihselliğini iki karşı uçtan eksik bıraktığı iddia edilecektir. Diğer taraftan, yazı boyunca tarihselci edebiyat teorisi, Yeni Eleşti-ri, Alımlama Estetiği ve Yeni Tarihselcilik içinde edebiyatın tarihle kurduğu gerilimli ilişkisi konusundaki temel sorular üzerinde durulacaktır. Bu yazı-da ayrıca, edebi metnin okunmasının; okurun kendisini tarih içinde bulu-vermesi, tecrübenin zamansallığı, insanın ve edebi metnin tamamlanamazlığı gibi boyutlarıyla tarihsel olduğu iddia edilecektir. Edebi metnin kurgusal varlığı ve otonomisini incitmeksizin tarihle, tarihsel olanla anlamlı bir ilişki kurabilmesi ancak okumanın tarihselliği üzerinden gerçekleştirilebilir.

Premise: In the literary works of our anthropological and cultural imagination, the various languages and the different discursive practices are not necessarily quoted, expressly alluded to or declared through clear expressive mechanisms; instead, they rather constitute a substratum, a background, now consolidated, which with irony and intertextuality shines through the thematic and formal elements of each text. The various contaminations, hybridizations and promptings that we find in the expressive forms, the rhetorical procedures and the linguistic and thematic choices of post-modern literary texts are shaped as fluid and familiar categories. Exchanges and passages are no longer only allowed but also inevitable; the post-modern imagination is made up of an agglomeration of discourses that are no longer really separable, built up from texts that blend and quote one another, composing, each with its own specificities, the great family of the cultural products of our social scenario. A literary work, therefore, is not only a whole phenomenon, delimited hic et nunc by a beginning and an ending, but is a fragment of that complex, dense and boundless network that is given by the continual interrelations between human forms of communication and symbolization. The research hypothesis: A vision is delineated of comparative literature as a discipline attentive to the social contexts in which texts take shape and move and to the media-type consistency that literary phenomena inevitably take on. Hence literature is seen as an open systematicity that chooses to be contaminated by other languages and other discursive practices of an imagination that is more than ever polymorphic and irregular. Inside this interpretative framework the aim is to focus the analysis on the relationship that postmodern literature establishes with advertising discourse. On one side post-modern literature is inserted in the world of communication, loudly asserting the blending and reciprocal contamination of literary modes with media ones, absorbing their languages and signification practices, translating them now into thematic nuclei, motifs and sub-motifs and now into formal expedients and new narrative choices; on the other side advertising is chosen as a signification practice of the media universe, which since the 1960s has actively contributed to shaping the dynamics of our socio-cultural scenarios, in terms which are just as important as those of other discursive practices. Advertising has always been a form of communication and symbolization that draws on the collective imagination – myths, actors and values – turning them into specific narrative programs for its own texts. Hence the aim is to interpret and analyze this relationship both from a strictly thematic perspective – and therefore trying to understand what literature speaks about when it speaks about advertising, and seeking advertising quotations in post-modern fiction – and from a formal perspective, with a search for parallels and discordances between the rhetorical procedures, the languages and the verifiable stylistic choices in the texts of the two different signification practices. The analysis method chosen, for the purpose of constructive multiplication of the perspectives, aims to approach the analytical processes of semiotics, applying, when possible, the instruments of the latter, in order to highlight the thematic and formal relationships between literature and advertising. The corpus: The corpus of the literary texts is made up of various novels and, although attention is focused on the post-modern period, there will also be ineludible quotations from essential authors that with their works prompted various reflections: H. De Balzac, Zola, Fitzgerald, Joyce, Calvino, etc… However, the analysis focuses the corpus on three authors: Don DeLillo, Martin Amis and Aldo Nove, and in particular the followings novels: “Americana” (1971) and “Underworld” (1999) by Don DeLillo, “Money” (1984) by Martin Amis and “Woobinda and other stories without a happy ending” (1996) and “Superwoobinda” (1998) by Aldo Nove. The corpus selection is restricted to these novels for two fundamental reasons: 1. assuming parameters of spatio-temporal evaluation, the texts are representative of different socio-cultural contexts and collective imaginations (from the masterly glimpses of American life by DeLillo, to the examples of contemporary Italian life by Nove, down to the English imagination of Amis) and of different historical moments (the 1970s of DeLillo’s Americana, the 1980s of Amis, down to the 1990s of Nove, decades often used as criteria of division of postmodernism into phases); 2. adopting a perspective of strictly thematic analysis, as mentioned in the research hypothesis, the variations and the constants in the novels (thematic nuclei, topoi, images and narrative developments) frequently speak of advertising and inside the narrative plot they affirm various expressions and realizations of it: value ones, thematic ones, textual ones, urban ones, etc… In these novels the themes and the processes of signification of advertising discourse pervade time, space and the relationships that the narrator character builds around him. We are looking at “particle-characters” whose endless facets attest the influence and contamination of advertising in a large part of the narrative developments of the plot: on everyday life, on the processes of acquisition and encoding of the reality, on ideological and cultural baggage, on the relationships and interchanges with the other characters, etc… Often the characters are victims of the implacable consequentiality of the advertising mechanism, since the latter gets the upper hand over the usual processes of communication, which are overwhelmed by it, wittingly or unwittingly (for example: disturbing openings in which the protagonist kills his or her parents on the basis of a spot, former advertisers that live life codifying it through the commercial mechanisms of products, sons and daughters of advertisers that as children instead of playing outside for whole nights saw tapes of spots.) Hence the analysis arises from the text and aims to show how much the developments and the narrative plots of the novels encode, elaborate and recount the myths, the values and the narrative programs of advertising discourse, transforming them into novel components in their own right. And also starting from the text a socio-cultural reference context is delineated, a collective imagination that is different, now geographically, now historically, and from comparison between them the aim is to deduce the constants, the similarities and the variations in the relationship between literature and advertising.

One of the earliest indications of Iranian navigation during the Achaemenid period is a relief found in the audience hall of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae, bearing the appellation “God of Water and Sea.” The primary focus of this article is to investigate whether navigation and maritime activities during the reign of Cyrus the Great were influenced by and expanded upon Phoenician techniques and Mesopotamian regions. Prior studies have generally taken a historical and overarching approach to this subject. Since complete trust cannot be placed in historical references and texts, and given the existence of certain deficiencies and even contradictions in the writings of ancient historians such as Herodotus, Xenophon, and others, this research aims to shed new light on the obscure aspects of navigation and seafaring during this era, relying on archaeological findings such as the clay tablets, relief, and a reexamination of previous literary and historical texts. This article employs an analytical-descriptive methodology and a library-based approach. Among the archaeological findings from this period, a total of two reliefs in Pasargadae and two clay tablets are subject to investigation and research. The examination of the artifacts and findings from Pasargadae demonstrates that the Achaemenids indirectly came under the influence of Phoenician art and Mesopotamian regions concerning navigation. Furthermore, in the pursuit of maritime development, trade, and shipping, they were directly influenced by the Phoenicians. With the acquisition of maritime power, they successfully annexed many neighboring lands to their powerful empire.

Medieval English Manuscripts:

Criteria are briefly proposed for final conclusions, research problems, and research hypotheses in quantitative research. Moreover, based on a proposed definition of applied and basic/general research, it is argued that (1) in applied quantitative research, while research problems are necessary, research hypotheses are unjustified, and that (2) in basic/general quantitative hypothesis-testing research, research hypotheses are sufficient, while research problems are unjustified. These arguments are partly related to the distinction between taking knowledge for granted and regarding knowledge as being on trial. The paper illustrates the central role played by the study’s general aim and its relation to existing knowledge in the research domain.

In the twenty-first century the trauma theory has become an important way to understand a wide variety of contemporary events of exhausting wars and conflicts which have battered the contemporary societies. In the most general sense, it is used to examine the ways in which past painful experiences are processed with the help of literary texts. It further attempts to analyze different ways by which traumatic occurrences are demonstrated, processed, exposed, and expressed throughout a variety of literary and historical texts as a form of testimony. Subsequently, the authors as well as the victims might attempt to negotiate and resolve their own personal traumas with the help of their writings and sometimes with the help of fictional characters in their literary texts as they serve to record and pronounce cultural traumas. In Padhmavati Singh’s “The Silence of Violence” which was written on the pretext of ten years violent conflict that took the lives of thousands of innocent people, one can find the characters and situation inextricably affected by trauma and she or he finds it hugely manipulated to bring out the post-conflict Nepali society apart from anticipating impatiently for long lasting peace and solidarity.

This chapter begins by looking at what outlawry means in a legal sense in medieval England, drawing comparisons between the characterisation of the outlaw as an excluded figure and Agamben's portrayal of the homo sacer. The representation of the outlaw in the literature of the period, however, gives us a very different picture, akin to Hobsbawm's 'social bandit.' Different again from these representations in both legal and literary texts are the actions of the real outlaw gangs of medieval England, whose behaviour is perhaps more complex than either Agamben or Hobsbawm's archetypal constructions may allow for. Following this discussion of the outlaw in legal, literary, and historical texts, this chapter proceeds to highlight three phenomena. Firstly, it notes the extent of additional forms of exclusion from law within the 'palimpsest of jurisdictions' found in later medieval England. Secondly, it discusses outlawry and its literature as a location where tensions around sovereign authority may be examined. Finally, it considers the use of exclusion from or inclusion within English law as a tactic linked to territorial expansion in later medieval Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, and the application of outlawry to the English state’s archipelagic opponents, such as Robert Bruce and William Wallace.

Reviews 293 appliquée depuis le milieu du vingtième siècle qui, contrairement à l’approche normative de la langue jusque là dominante, valorise les formes non-standard des langues puisqu’elle a comme objet d’étude la langue dans son contexte. Comme le rappelle l’auteur en conclusion, ce livre met en lumière les échos historiques entre pouvoir et langue et l’impact que ces deux notions ont encore aujourd’hui sur la manière dont on enseigne les langues. University of Massachusetts, Lowell Carole Salmon Treps, Marie. Les mots-caresses: petit inventaire affectueux. Paris: CNRS, 2011. ISBN 978-2-271-06911-5. Pp. 433. 14,90 a. As is clear from the abundant literature on code-switching, bilinguals often turn to their mother tongue to express strong emotions. It is as if only the native language is capable of capturing one’s true feelings. Treps’s journey into the particular speech act served by hypocoristic words, or terms of endearment, turns out to be an exploration of language from numerous perspectives: culturally and sociolinguistically certainly, but also through literary and historical texts. In this new and greatly expanded version of Le dico des mots-caresses (Seuil, 1997), the reader is invited to discover how the broad repertoire of terms of endearment is equally matched by the range of emotions, relationships , and situations that hypocoristic words serve to express. The opening commentary sets an easy and engaging tone,suggesting the author’s affection for her subject, but also defining the approach, the method of investigation, and the diverse functions and situations within which such terms originate and occur. The author directly addresses the reader, speaking, as it were, with an appropriate tone of familiarity, complicity, and informality. The subject is cleverly defined in both a formal and informal manner; the technical term, hypocoristique, is presented along with its etymology, tying in the coinage “mots-caresses.” By itself, the commentary is interesting and relevant for the student of French, whether the draw is literary, linguistic, or cultural. The writing style is aligned with the topic: colloquial, personal, and contemporary. The text invites the reader to visit its contents randomly and to be happily surprised by the outcome. The hunt for terms of endearment is conducted within a broad terrain: classic and modern literature,an Internet student forum,newspaper personal advertisements forValentine’s Day,movie scripts,and so on.No topic is off limits,and the récolte is impressive. In the textual resources referenced at the end of the book, literary texts are neatly organized by centuries.Following this list,an index provides a guide for picking and choosing expressions to explore, so that one could go, for instance, from abeille (“La vie se fait chaque jour, mon abeille,” taken from Chabrol’s 1967 film Je t’aimerai sans vergogne) to canaille (an affective insult used frequently in Serge Gainsbourg’s and Eddy Mitchell’s well-known 1985 duo) or to the very French kiki, as in “C’est parti, mon kiki!” Treps does a particularly good job of contextualizing her examples. Each expression is followed by a brief but accurate reading of its meaning in context, such as the potential of mes agneaux to express “une certaine ironie à l’adresse de ceux qui, en apparence, sont la douceur, l’innocence mêmes” (37). With a well-conceived thematic organization, this volume is enjoyable and instructive. It will enrich in an entertaining manner classes geared toward discovering language within its sociocultural setting,including advanced (spoken) language,sociolinguistics,civilization,and literary courses with a broad focus. Wake Forest University (NC) Stéphanie Pellet 294 FRENCH REVIEW 87.1 ...

Making Authentic Literary Texts Relevant, Meaningful, and Fun in Advanced Beginner and Intermediate Spanish-language Classrooms Laura Graebner Shepin Introduction The incorporation of literary texts in advanced beginner and intermediate level language classrooms (high school Spanish, years 2–4; university Spanish, semesters 2–4) can seem intimidating. Teachers worry about students' ability to understand texts linguistically and to interpret them culturally. Additionally, the thoughtful exploration of literary texts takes time away from other content, specifically grammar and vocabulary, which often seem more straightforward to teach due to the plethora of instructional and assessment tools already available. Lastly, the accessibility of the literary texts found in some text books, and the lack of complete instructional materials for instructors to teach these texts, might discourage instructors from including literary texts in course curriculum. Despite these challenges, it is important to include literary texts at the advanced beginner and intermediate levels for three reasons. First, literary texts present grammar points and vocabulary in context, which actively supports language acquisition, for example, by highlighting the uses of the preterite and the imperfect. Second, literature is the verbal representation of the target culture; literary texts communicate emotions, perceptions, and human experiences in a way a verb chart cannot. A compelling case for the role of literature in the development of world citizens is made by the philosopher Martha C. Nussbaum, who argues that literature simulates a reader's "narrative imagination," which in turn allows the reader to feel empathy for others. Third, successful engagement with literary texts in the advanced beginner and intermediate stages of language study sets students up for continued success in Advanced Placement (AP) courses and upper-division university language coursework. ACTFL's "Guiding Principles for Language Learning" explicitly promote the benefits of literature in the foreign language curriculum. Gillian Lazar argues that authentic literature exposes students to "complex themes and fresh, unexpected uses of language" and is "more absorbing than the pseudo-narratives frequently found in course books" (15). Similarly, Jonathan P. A. Sell encourages L2 teachers to reject fiction authored specifically for the language learner in favor of authentic literary texts, citing its representation of language and culture to be more genuine, and ultimately, more beneficial and interesting to the learner. A well-chosen literary text "can be an effective tool for stimulating and achieving language learning and equipping learners with relevant linguistic and socio-cultural competence" (91–92). In addition to the linguistic authenticity of literature, its emotional authenticity is motivating to the reader and demands a "personal response" (Kousompou 75). In considering specifically how to approach teaching literary texts, Sanju Choudhary describes two approaches for L2 literary analysis. The first of these, reader-response, "demystifies" literature by encouraging readers to make personal connections. The second is a language-based [End Page 313] approach, which focuses language instruction and production related to the literature. Both strategies, he concludes, have value. Lazar's Literature and Language Teaching: A Guide for Teachers and Trainers provides many resources to guide teachers through the selection of texts and activities to support language acquisition, comprehension, and oral fluency in L2 learners, including those at the lower levels. Janet Swaffar and Katherine Arens's chapters 3 and 4 are also particularly useful resources for the selection and instruction of literature at the lower levels. Selecting and teaching a literary text successfully requires, like all good teaching, thoughtful and intentional lesson design. Teachers need to ask the following questions to understand the challenges the text presents to students and to identify the goals the teacher has for student learning: 1. Is the text thematically appropriate? The text must be relevant and accessible to the audience; relatable themes will lead to student success, whereas abstract, philosophical, or overly mature themes will tend to frustrate them. Sometimes the most canonical literary works are not the best fit for advanced beginner and intermediate students. 2. What vocabulary and grammar will students need to know to understand the text? What words and language structures do students already confidently know? What vocabulary and grammar can they be expected to decode on their own using reading strategies such as context clues and cognates? What vocabulary and grammar will need to be glossed...

Idiolects are person-dependent similarities in language use. They imply that texts by one author show more similarities in language use than texts between authors. Sociolects, on the other hand, are group-dependent similarities in language use. They imply that texts by a group of authors, for instance in terms of gender or time period, share more similarities within a group than between groups. Although idiolects and sociolects are commonly used terms in the humanities, they have not been investigated a great deal from corpus and computational linguistic points of view. To test several idiolect and sociolect hypotheses a factorial combination was used of time period (Modernism, Realism), gender of author (male, female) and author (Eliot, Dickens, Woolf, Joyce) totaling 16 corresponding literary texts. In a series of corpus linguistic studies using Boolean and vector models, no conclusive evidence was found for the selected idiolect and sociolect hypotheses. In final analyses testing the semantics within each literary text, this lack of evidence was explained by the low homogeneity within a literary text.

The research explored the effects of integrating literary texts on the writing performance of selected university students. It also documented the attitudes of the university students on the integration of literary texts in their regular writing course and their perceptions on the difficulties they encounter in the writing process. These research objectives were rationalized by the need to address the writing difficulties by applying theoretical assumptions and addressing the empirical gaps of previous studies on the effectiveness of literature as a rich resource in developing language competence. The research participants were composed of first year business students who were enrolled in an ESP course in one of the universities in Bahrain. Each group was composed of 35 students with an equal distribution of male and female participants. A mixed method approach was used to address the core research questions with the primary application of an experimental design. The results revealed that literary text integration is effective in improving the academic writing performance of the university student-participants as indicated by the statistical test, wherein the experimental group (m = 3.35) had a higher level of improvement than the control group (m = 2.93) in terms of their overall writing performance after the intervention. The student-respondents had a positive attitude towards the integration of literary text in their regular writing course. Writing difficulties included the process of writing the introduction, body, conclusions of their academic writing tasks, use of relevant vocabulary communicative achievement, organization, and language use. It was recommended that language teachers should incorporate literary texts that are related to the writing lessons. Educational administrators and leaders may revisit the curriculum and use the empirical results in developing a more relevant language curriculum especially in the area of writing instruction where literary texts could be integrated.

John Shirley compiled and wrote at least three miscellanies, probably more, in the first half of the fifteenth century; and Shirley's books appear to have remained accessible to a number of scribes in the decades following his death, to be used as exemplars for further miscellanies produced mainly in London for a century after his death. This article is an attempt to bring together what evidence we have for the network of scribes who inherited Shirley's books: what they copied from Shirley, what were their interests, how they may have had access to his books. John Shirley compiled and wrote at least three miscellanies, probably more, in the first half of the fifteenth century up to his death in 1456; and Shirley's books appear to have remained accessible to a number of scribes in the decades following his death, by what means we do not know, to be used as exemplars for further miscellanies produced mainly in London for a century after his death. (1) This article is an attempt to bring together what evidence we have for the network of scribes who inherited Shirley's books: what they copied from Shirley, what were their interests, and how they may have had access to his books. In a collection of essays on miscellanies, it will first be necessary to establish that Shirley's books and the books of later scribes who copied some of Shirley's texts can be considered as miscellanies, as understood elsewhere in this volume. Although most scholarly studies of Shirley's books have focused on their literary contents and Shirley's introductions, a closer look at their contents, as laid out so clearly in Tables 1 to 3 of Margaret Connolly's recent book on Shirley (pp. 30-31, 70-74, 146-49), reveals compilations more miscellaneous than these studies suggest. His earliest volume, London, British Library MS Additional 16165, includes besides literary works texts such as the Gospel of Nicodemus, the Master of Game, and a Latin Regula sacerdotalis. His second, as reconstructed from its parts in Sion College MS Arc.L.40.2/E.44, BL MS Harley 78 (fols [80.sup.r]-[83.sup.v]), and Cambridge, Trinity College MS R.3.20, includes besides literary works the translation of Deguileville's Pelerinage de la vie humaine, prognostications, prayers, and proverbs. His third, Oxford, Bodleian Library MS Ashmole 59, while the most exclusively literary of his compilations, nevertheless includes a list of the Knights of the Garter in 1416, the Middle English translation of Augustinus de contemptu mundi, medical recipes, and an account of lucky and unlucky days. Those who copied his texts in succeeding decades also compiled miscellanies of literary, didactic, historical, and practical texts. For instance, BL MS Harley 7333 brings together the prose Brut, Middle English versions of Cato, proverbs, and Lydgate's verses on the kings of England with what we would more clearly define as literary texts. In John Shirley, Chapter 8, Margaret Connolly discusses the manuscripts of Shirley's 'successors', as she calls them. Manuscripts in which are copied one or more texts apparently derived from Shirley's manuscripts are BL MS Additional 34360; BL MS Harley 2251; Cambridge, MA, Harvard University, Houghton Library MS Eng. 530; BL MS Harley 7333; BL MS Cotton Titus A.xxvi (fols 61-207); John Stow's manuscripts, BL MSS Harley 367 and Additional 29729; and possibly BL MS Additional 5467 (Connolly, pp. 172-85). Other manuscripts discussed by Connolly as sharing a number of texts in common with Shirley manuscripts, though showing no signs of direct derivation, are BL MS Harley 7578 and Bodleian MS Rawlinson C.86 (pp. 177-78, 181-82). Others sharing some contents with this group of manuscripts are Leiden, University Library MS Vossius Germ. Gal. Q.9; Cambridge, Jesus College MS 56; Bodleian MS Fairfax 16; Cambridge, Trinity College MSS R.3.19 and R.3.21; BL MSS Harley 2255, Harley 372, Egerton 1995, and Lansdowne 699; and Lambeth Palace Library MS 306. …

In 1989 Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick claimed that the discipline of gynaecology emerged in the nineteenth century as a response to cultural and medical anxieties over female masturbation. Sedgwick, in her controversial article ‘Jane Austen and the Masturbating Girl’, argued for a rereading of Sense and Sensibility (1811) that allowed for the possibility of a homoerotic, or even autoerotic, identity for the novel's Dashwood sisters. While Sedgwick's approach might be described as anachronistic or even exclusionary (it implies that readers who cannot see in Austen's text what Sedgwick sees have been blinded by their own heterosexist assumptions), it does present a useful model for the juxtaposition of historical and literary texts. That is, in forging audacious links between texts in an attempt to reveal what has previously been unsaid, unheard, or unexamined, Sedgwick illustrates the impossibility of locating an objective ‘meaning’ in canonical literary works. In this essay I echo Sedgwick as I explore the rich, albeit tangential, allusiveness produced by the juxtaposition of literary and non-literary texts. In exploring Victorian gynaecological treatises and a novel, Charlotte Bronte's Villette (1853), I identify a provocative cultural narrative of staged propriety and silent restraint. This essay, then, tells the story of how certain Victorian lives intersect and coalesce. What comes into view from the merging of the canonical and the non-canonical, the fictional and the real, is an account of how the individual sexual subject struggles to make sense of its identity in relation to the secret and unspoken complexities of the female body.

The events of the late 1980s-early 1990s played a key role in the history of Georgia. April 9, 1989, was one of the most important events in this respect. It defined the shared identity and memory for a long time and determined future developments in the country. April 9 proved to be a paradigmatic event in the recent history of Georgia. The narrative of trauma and triumph was formed, being reflected in historical, literary and documentary texts, as well as in different sites of memory. Two years later, at the very place of the tragedy, the restoration of independence of Georgia was declared. The paper deals with the process of the crystallization of April 9 as a paradigmatic event. Cultural patterns that played a crucial role in the establishment of the traumatic-triumphal narrative of April 9, 1989, and in the thirty-year dynamics of the attitudes towards this event are explored. The study presents how April 9 and its resonance influenced the perception of the past, as well as further developments. Theories of collective memory and cultural trauma serve as the theoretical framework for the research, while official documents, memoirs, literary texts and various types of media sources form its empirical basis

This essay surveys selected scholarship of early modern reading from 1971 through early 2012 by both literary scholars and historians. It includes studies of reading literacy, as well as examinations of the practices and implications of reading religious, historical, literary, practical, and scientific texts in print and manuscript cultures in early modern England. The bibliography includes work that approaches historical reading practices and male and female readers both through the representation of reading in literary texts and through the archive of reading created by marginalia, commonplace books, inventories, and other handwritten documents. The political dynamics of reading have merited substantial attention, as have its more private, subjective, and physiological outcomes. (E. S.)