The Biblical Hebrew Verb : An Inconsistent linguistic Introduction?

Introduction and General Christopher T. Begg, Thomas Hieke, Andrew W. Litke, Andrew D. Gross, Randy C. Payne, Isaac Kalimi, Brent A. Strawn, Joseph E. Jensen, and Richard A. Taylor 931. [Aspect, Communicative Appeal, and Temporal Meaning in BH Verbal Forms] Ulf Bergström, Aspect, Communicative Appeal, and Temporal Meaning in Biblical Hebrew Verbal Forms (Linguistic Studies 16; University Park, PA: Eisenbrauns, 2022). Pp. xiv + 215. $94.95. ISBN 978-1-64602-140-6. The back cover of B.'s volume presents this account of B.'s monograph: This book provides a new explanation of what has long been a challenge for scholars of Biblical Hebrew (BH): how to understand the expression of verbal tense and aspect. Working from a representative text corpus, combined with database queries of specific usages and surveys of examples discussed in the scholarly literature, B. gives a comprehensive overview of the semantic meanings of the verbal forms, along with a significant sample of the variation of pragmatically inferred tense, aspect, or modality (TAM) meanings. B. applies diachronic typology and a redefined concept of aspect to demonstrate that BH verbal forms have basic aspectual and derived temporal meanings and that communicative appeal, the action-triggering function of language, affects verbal semantics and promotes the diversification of tense meanings. B.'s overarching explanation of the semantic development of the BH verbal system is an important contribution to the study of the evolution of the verbal system and the meanings of individual verbs in the Hebrew Bible. … [adapted] B.'s monograph consists of a total of six chapters titled respectively: (1) Introduction; (2) Comments on the State of Research; (3) A Theory of Aspect and Tense; (4) Progressive and Resultative Verbs in Biblical Hebrew; (5) Communicative Appeal and the Semantics of the Biblical Hebrew Verb; and (6) Conclusion. [End Page 325] At the conclusion of his introduction, B. offers this "summary" of the aim and main contribution of his project: The aim of the present study is to provide a semantic description of the BH verbal forms that explains their temporal meanings. Section 1.1 gives a background to the problem by exemplifying the abundance of diverging suggestions about what grammatical terms to use for a specific form. As a major factor in the controversy, I point to the lack of a common theoretical basis, especially regarding the central notion of aspect. An important contribution toward a solution is, I argue, provided by the socalled grammaticalization approach, according to which it is possible to classify BH verbal forms into cross-linguistic verbal types and reconstruct how their various meanings have developed along two main diachronic pathways in accordance with universal principles. The two specific pathways that I find relevant for BH run from progressive to future and from resultative to past; that is, from what I call "aspectual" to temporal meanings. Qotel and yiqtol-L belong to the progressive pathway, whereas qatal and yiqtol-S belong to the resultative. … [p. 21, adapted—C.T.B.] 932. [The Aramaic Book of Ahiqar] Seth A. Bledsoe, The Wisdom of the Aramaic Book of Ahiqar. Unravelleing a Discourse of Uncertainty and Distress (JSJSup 199; Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2021). Pp. x + 455. $166. ISBN 978-90-04-47312-6. B.'s book offers fresh readings of the Aramaic Book of Ahiqar, an often under-appreciated ancient wisdom text. In undertaking a comprehensive literary analysis, incorporating both the drama and the sayings together, B. shows that Ahiqar's didactic impulse is founded on a sense of uncertainty about life, offering advice for those in times of distress, much like the titular character himself. While Ahiqar shares many features with biblical instructional literature like Proverbs, the ambiguous cosmic and social order imagined in the text resonates more strongly with the likes of Qoheleth or Job. B. also takes seriously the book's Elephantine context, suggesting that the social and political ethic evinced by the work would have resonated strongly with the Judean community in Achaemenid Egypt. B.'s work unfolds starting with an introduction that is followed by a series of seven chapters, titled respectively, (1) Locating Ahiqar: Materiality, Language, and Intertextuality; (2) Unravelling Ahiqar: Narratology and Discourse in the Story...

Reviewed by: The Verbal Tense System in Late Biblical Hebrew Prose by Ohad Cohen Paul Korchin THE VERBAL TENSE SYSTEM IN LATE BIBLICAL HEBREW PROSE. By Ohad Cohen. Trans. Avi Aronsky. HSS 63. Pp. xiv + 304. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2013. Cloth, $49.50. Can the Biblical Hebrew verbal system(s) ever truly be solved? Centuries of philological laborings have yielded many insights into the structures and significations of individual verbal components—and yet the actual, precise workings of the system as a whole remain elusive. The functional categories of tense, aspect, and mood compose the trifecta around which most studies variously place their linguistic bets. Traditionally, a winner-take-all approach has been invoked: for example, Biblical Hebrew verbal morphologies must primarily signify aspect, or else they must chiefly convey tense. Yet greater appreciation has developed for less rigid and more nuanced models that aim to account for the complexities of Biblical Hebrew as we actually have it, rather than as we ideally wish it to be. Ohad Cohen’s monograph exhibits this kind of awareness throughout, as he endeavors methodically to describe and, where possible, to explain the forms and functions of Biblical Hebrew in its historically later permutations. The inclusion of “Tense” in the title of the book is somewhat confusing, potentially leading the reader to expect that the author intends to proffer a mainly temporal (as opposed to aspectual and/or modal) analysis of Biblical Hebrew verbs. Yet in his opening paragraph, Cohen avers that “use of the term ‘tense,’ which appears in the title of this work, is a mere formality and carries no significance regarding the actual meaning of the verbal system” (p. 1). Such a formality would thus have been better avoided, given the highly loaded nature of this term for the discussions at hand. Cohen states that he will apply a structuralist methodology to his project—predicated upon classic (neo)-Saussurean oppositions between diachrony versus synchrony, langue versus parole, and paradigm versus syntagm—and in this approach he is commendably consistent (p. 1). Critics who contend that structuralism is an overly rigid, unduly static, ultimately outmoded model for linguistics fail to grant due appreciation to its capacity for crafting productive descriptive analyses of language in terms of oppositions that can be predicated simultaneously upon multiple binarisms across numerous domains (cf. pp. 28–29). Indeed, structural opposition potentially even entails powerful explanatory capacities for language origins and usage, given the adaptive bilateral symmetric morphology of Homo sapiens that evolved in response to selective pressures within Hominin [sic] environments. [End Page 423] Cohen delineates his corpus of study by relying upon the tripartite historico-linguistic distinction between archaic, classical, and late (Second Temple) Biblical Hebrew (pp. 7–15). This yields him a database of Esther, Daniel, Ezra–Nehemiah, and (non-synoptic) Chronicles. He then proceeds to introduce the well-known 1947 model of Hans Reichenbach, which incorporated the notion of reference time (R)—and hence, relative tense—into linguistic relationships between speech time (S) and event time (E) (pp. 16–19). Cohen’s discussion of these potentially complex combinations is reasonably coherent, but his presentation suffers from periodic typographic errors (e.g., past perfect correctly as E - R - S [p. 16], then incorrectly as E - S - R [p. 19]), which render it frustratingly obtuse at times. Despite this, his provisional conclusion is important: “Hebrew verbs are indeed full-fledged relative forms, namely their distinct relationship to reference time is the only parameter for determining their chronological meaning” (p. 19). The author then proceeds to discuss the Biblical Hebrew consecutive forms, where he adopts an eccentric component into his study: “one of the crucial features of a verb form that denotes succession is that it contains its own reference time [E, R], and it is this very trait which allows for the construction of the narrative succession” (p. 25). Cohen throughout adheres to this notion that Biblical Hebrew consecutive forms—originally wayyiqtol and weqatal, and later qatal and the infinitive absolute (see p. 78)—reset, each and every time, the given narrative’s referential clock, thereby constituting independent temporal frames that get joined in varying degrees of contiguity (pp. 77, 95–96, 114, 171–173, 195...

Time to Clarify John A. Cook A rejoinder to A. Andrason, “ The Biblical Hebrew Verbal System in Light of Grammaticalization: The Second Generation,” HS52 (2011): 19– 51. C. H. J. van der Merwe, “ Review of John Cook, Time and the Biblical Hebrew Verb: The Expression of Tense, Aspect, and Modality in Biblical Hebrew(Linguistic Studies in Ancient West Semitic 7). Eisenbrauns: Winona Lake, Indiana,” JNSL40 (2014): 131– 135. A. Andrason and C. H. J. van der Merwe, “ The Semantics Potential of Verbal Conjugations as a Set of Polysemous Senses,” HS56 (2015): 71– 88. E. Robar, “ An Old Argument in New Garb: John Cook on Aspect and Biblical Hebrew,” HS55 (2014): 399– 409. 1. I ntroduction The field of Biblical Hebrew verb study is a fascinating and active one. No one enters the fray without the expectation of pushback from colleagues. I debuted in the field in 2002 with a doctoral thesis, to which my 2012 book stands in some tension, because over the intervening decade I have deepened, broadened, and in some significant ways changed my thinking about Hebrew verb theory. 1The detailed criticisms of both by several colleagues provide a welcome opportunity for me to clarify my approach and the differences between my theory and those of others in the field. Andrason’s extensive oeuvre of the past few years has used this particular approach as a foil for his theory. He devoted a 2011 Hebrew Studiesarticle to an extended critique of my ideas. 2The timing was unfortunate, however, as I [End Page 403]was in the throes of final edits on the 2012 book. Thus, Andrason’s criticisms, aimed at the 2002 thesis, appeared on the eve of the publication of my revised thoughts. Christo van der Merwe, with whom Andrason has studied, published a review of my book in 2014, in which he devotes substantial space to a defense of his student’s ideas. 3This defense is further advanced in a joint article by Andrason and van der Merwe. 4I have therefore slightly revised my interaction below to take the latter article into account. Finally, in 2014, a review essay on my book by Elizabeth Robar, who has recently published her own thesis on the Hebrew verb, appeared in Hebrew Studies. 5My familiarity with her work and her extended interaction with mine adds another dialogue partner for the present rejoinder. 6 2. A ndrason and van derM erwe Since van der Merwe takes up and reaffirms the criticisms of my approach from Andrason, I treat them together here. The differences between Andrason and me are largely theoretical, and to that extent intractable (unless one of us is converted to the opposing stance). At the same time, my disagreement and dissatisfaction with Andrason’s theory is in large part based on his results (or rather lack thereof) as far as philologically usable insights are concerned. As mentioned already, Andrason’s lengthy critique of my 2002 thesis appeared shortly before the publication of my book. As a result, not only had I already anticipated some of his criticisms in the book, but also it was impossible for me to interact there in detail with other points that he had made. As van der Merwe observes, chapters 3 and 4 of the book “have been completely revised” via-à-vis my thesis. 7Indeed, beneath the revisions of both chapters lie some significant shifts and clarifications in my thinking about linguistic theory. Here, I reiterate and clarify some of those changes in light of Andrason’s and van der Merwe’s publications. [End Page 404] At the heart of Andrason’s criticism of my earlier work is that it is not a thoroughgoing grammaticalization analysis. He writes: From the above discussion it becomes evident that Cook’s model does not entirely comply with the requirements of the evolutionary approach. Among all the inaccuracies, three are particularly important constituting the Achilles heal [sic] of Cook’s proposal. Namely, the employment of static and one-stage definitions, the distinctions between the main/inherent meaning and contextual variations, and the claim of a binary opposition between verbal categories are untenable within the grammaticalization...

A Biblical Hebrew Reference Grammar

The verb שׁמד is a prominent verb of destruction that appears throughout the Hebrew Bible (HB). It is well represented in both Dtn-Dtr and the Prophetic Books. Many verses related to the conquest of Canaan and the exile feature this verb. Relevant scholarly literature also indicates that some elements of its meaning and usage remain obscure. All this makes it worthy of investigation. The last few decades have seen a rise in the utilisation of cognitive linguistics (CL) for the exegesis of the HB. A review of scholarly literature did not identify any robust attempt at utilising CL to gain insight into the meaning of שׁמד. In this study, frame semantics (FS) along with several other CL methodologies are used to gain greater insight into the semantic force of שׁמד in the HB. Three major discoveries were made. (1) While there usually are severe fatalities, all-encompassing fatality (i.e. annihilation) is not at the semantic core of שׁמד. Rather, decimation is the idea. (2) The destruction envisaged by שׁמד is conceptualised as removal from a location, whether dispossession or extermination. (3) Some insight was gained into the obscurity of when שׁמד takes במות as an object. Intradisciplinary and/or interdisciplinary implications: This study traverses the fields of CL, Semitics, Biblical Studies, and Biblical Theology. It utilises CL to gain greater insight into a Hebrew verb. This insight enabled more accurate exegesis of the HB. These exegetical findings have implications for Biblical Theology, especially divine judgement and the conquest of Canaan.

This chapter examines the verbs and the concept of aspect in biblical Hebrew (BH) language. It suggests that the sequential interpretation triggered by wayyiqtols in the BH text is closely connected with the fact that the wayyiqtol form represents situations which include their end points. It concludes that the different aspectual classes do not play any important role in the interpretation of the prefixed forms because the movement in the narrative advances whether or not a sentence presents an event or a state.

This book addresses the problem of temporal interpretation within narrative of the biblical Hebrew verb, thus exploring the broader issue of the expression of time in language and the ways in which we can attempt to understand and represent it. The author offers a summary of this controversy, which has been argued over since at least the tenth century, presenting previous scholarly opinions and theories. She argues that one possible way of understanding the fundamental meanings of the Hebrew verbs is by examining the role played in ordering time by the four main verb forms used in biblical Hebrew narrative. Accordingly, emphasis is given to the intersentential use of these forms and the variety of interesting ways in which they establish the order of events.

This book addresses the problem of temporal interpretation within narrative of the biblical Hebrew verb, thus exploring the broader issue of the expression of time in language and the ways in which we can attempt to understand and represent it. Tal Goldfajn offers a summary of this controversy, which has been argued over since at least the tenth century, presenting previous scholarly opinions and theories. She argues that one possible way of understanding the fundamental meanings of the Hebrew verbs is by examining the role played in ordering time by the four main verb forms used in biblical Hebrew narrative. Accordingly, emphasis is given to the intersentential use of these forms and the variety of interesting ways in which they establish the order of events.

Hebrew Studies 48 (2007) 359 Reviews Indeed, verse 11a conveys both the explicit subject and the inceptive action from which the content of verse 11b flows (cf. Isa 35:10 at p. 74). Also note that, despite Garr’s translation, the prefixed verb in 11b comes at the end of its clause: literally, “About what I do not know they question me” (yˆn…wlDaVvˆy). Is the paragogic nun at the beginning of this verse in some way motivated by the nun of the object suffix at its end? Finally, Garr’s evaluation of the paragogic nun as “semantically nondesiderative” (p. 71) seems overly restrictive given his consideration a page before of nonindicative NE;tˆy_yIm syntagms . Rather than claim that “the desiderative frame overrides the epistemic mood” (p. 70), it might be more accurate to evaluate the paragogic nun verbs as modally neutral (perhaps even as modally unmarked, should the Biblical Hebrew verb system here manifest structuralized oppositions). Paul Korchin University of Alaska, Northwest Campus Nome, AK 99762 korchin@post.harvard.edu A NEW UNDERSTANDING OF THE VERBAL SYSTEM OF CLASSICAL HEBREW: AN ATTEMPT TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN SEMANTIC AND PRAGMATIC FACTORS. By R. J. Furuli. Pp. 508. Oslo: Awatu Publishers, 2006. Paper, 300 NOK. $47.00. In this volume Furuli proposes an entirely new definition of Hebrew verbal aspect. He theorizes that aspect is a function of the interaction of event time, reference time, and the deictic center of events. According to Furuli, event time is “the time from the beginning to the end of an event. This time is non-deictic, because it is not seen in relation to a certain vantage point.” In reference time “the reporter in a way intersects event time and make (sic) a part of event time visible.” Finally, the deictic center is “the vantage point from which an event is seen” (pp. 471–472). This new definition is the result of an analysis of 79,574 verbal forms, in which Furuli seeks to make a strict distinction between semantic (uncancellable ) meaning and conversational pragmatic implicature, or meaning in context. Furuli’s methodological approach is corpus-based. The corpus includes the entire text of the Tanakh, samples from the Dead Sea Scrolls, Ben Sira, and Inscriptions. Furuli detects no change in the semantic meaning of the verbal forms across these texts. Additionally, the corpus includes prose, poetry , and prophetic literature. He observes that semantic meaning of the ver- Hebrew Studies 48 (2007) 360 Reviews bal forms is not affected by genre. Furuli’s distinction between semantic and pragmatic factors results in a redefinition of aspect. He states: The imperfective aspect is a close-up view of a small section of the event where the progressive action is made visible. The perfective aspect is a view, as if from some distance, of a greater part of, or of the whole event, where progressive action is not made visible. (p. 69) While other linguistic studies of Biblical Hebrew offer similar definitions of aspect (e.g., John Cook, “The Hebrew Verb: A Grammaticalization Approach,” ZAH 14 [2001]: 124), Furuli concludes that wayyiqtol is among the imperfective forms, along with yiqtol and weyiqtol, while qatal and weqatal represent the perfective forms. This is, perhaps, the most challenging aspect of the volume. In the first chapter, Furuli presents a review of previous scholarship, analysing the views of various scholars based upon the number of conjugations employed and their meaning. He differentiates between four component models, two component models, tense-based models, aspect-based models, models in which waw is viewed as more than a conjunction and models in which waw is viewed as a normal conjunction. He notes that contemporary scholarship acknowledges four conjugations and various combinations of tense and aspect based understandings. In the second chapter, Furuli presents his view of meaning in language, which is based upon Ogden’s triangle of signification: concept, word, and reference (p. 27). His approach is based upon lexical semantics in that each verb has a lexical meaning and an aktionsart, based upon the Vendlerian categories of state, activity, accomplishment, and achievement (see Z. Vendler, “Verbs and Time,” Philosophical Review 56 [1957]: 143–160). For Furuli, uncancellable semantic features include...

This chapter examines the use of the Hebrew verb in classical biblical Hebrew (BH) narrative. It analyses the text of chapters 18 and 19 of the second Book of Kings and the passage about David and Bathsheba in chapters 11 and 12 of the book of Samuel. It aims to determine whether the result of the analyses of these texts are consistent with the findings in Chapter 7 and to provide a better understanding of the role of the Hebrew verbs in the temporal structuring of the biblical text.

This concluding chapter sums up the key findings of this study on the relation between the four main biblical Hebrew (BH) verb forms and the temporal ordering of classical BH text narrative. It has suggested that the differences in the use of the BH verb forms should be analysed in their intersentential use and proposed that a tense marker can only be properly understood when its place and role in the text has been determined. The general argument of this study is that the main function of the BH verb forms is to indicate the temporal relations holding between the events in the text.

This introductory chapter explains the coverage and objective of this book, which is the temporal interpretation of word order and expression of time in the biblical Hebrew (BH) verb. This book postulates that the use of BH verb forms in classical BH is not arbitrary. It proposes two parameters that may be used to organize more consistently the observations concerning the time indications of the BH verb. The first parameter deals with the existence of two initial temporal set-ups and the second is about the role of verb order sequences in setting the temporal relations between the events within each temporal set-up.

Light Verbs in Biblical Hebrew

Chapter 4. Progressive and Resultative Verbs in Biblical Hebrew

The phenomenon of impersonal verbs in Indo-European languages, particularly in Latin, is a much discussed issue. Nevertheless, the existence and use of impersonal verbs in the Latin of the Vulgate has never been investigated from a comparative point of view. The main aim of this article is to discuss the use of impersonal verbs in ancient Indo-European languages and Biblical Hebrew on the one hand, while on the other hand this article examines the translation of the impersonal verbs of Biblical Hebrew to the Latin of the Vulgate and its underlying principles.