The Bhotiya Tribe in a Changing Climate of Garhwal Region: Assessing Vulnerability and Adaptation Strategies

Nowadays climate change is amongst the most critical problems affecting the wellbeing of human beings. In Ethiopia, where the majority of the population rely on agriculture, climate change has adverse effects. In rural areas, low resilient capacity to shocks exacerbates the impacts of climate change such as production failure, which in turn enormously contributed to food insecurity. In view of this fact, this study assessed the perceptions and practices of climate change and related adaptation and mitigation strategies among farmers in the Konta Special District, Southern Ethiopia, by using a mixed research approach involving a concurrent method of data collection and analysis. Quantitative data for this study was generated from 296 randomly selected survey households; while, qualitative data was collected through focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and in-depth interviews. The findings of this study revealed that sample respondents recognized the occurrence climate change and its increasing adverse effects. Regarding its cause, a substantial proportion (46.8%) of the respondents perceived climate change as the wrath of God and a natural phenomenon rather than attributing it to human activities. Participants also acknowledged that anthropogenic factors such as deforestation are the major driving factors for climate change. The study found that farmers affirmatively perceive the feasibility of the majority of the strategies embraced in the Climate Resilient Green Economy initiative endorsed at national level. Understanding that climate change effects are less reversible, farmers were found to practice mitigation strategies such as afforestation, agroforestry and agricultural intensification more than adaptation strategies. Adaptation strategies such as fuel conservation technologies were perceived costly and complex given the economic capacity and skill of farmers. Hence, rural and agricultural development policies should initiate context sensitive adaptation and mitigation strategies to enhance the capability of smallholders to deal with the effects of climate change.

The recent research recommendations on the adaptations of poor are toward local specific investigations, aimed at a comprehensive understanding of the adaptation strategies through in-depth analysis of the status, and the explicit on how climate and non-climate global change processes constrain the inherent strategies. Intent to this idea, we have designed this study to assess the small-scale farmers' adaptation and coping strategies in southwestern Ethiopia. The agroecology approach steered in case-study design was used for the conceptual and analytical framework. The data collected from 335 households were analyzed for descriptive and multivariate analysis of variance and substantiated by qualitative data obtained through focused group discussion, interview, and observations. The significant differences were observed in the watershed among households in the case studies on their adoption of the identified adaptation and coping strategies. The sustainability of preferred strategies was different along case studies, solely determined by the impact magnitude of the adaptations constraining factors. Although free ecosystem-based strategies become less practical and replacing by new strategies in the watershed, the processes were gradual, internal to the community and managed through adaptive learning in the highland. However, the paths were perceived as toward maladaptive, resulted by the state interventions which disrupted free adaptations, deteriorated adaptive learning of the community, and shaped the adaptation responses toward the interventions in the kolla agroecology. The study implies that the situations of households' adaptation strategies are beyond the reflections of their respective production ecology, designated within climate variability in the previous studies. The structural land use dynamics and associated resource tenure insecurity have greater constraining effects on the strategies than the impacts of climate variability in the kolla. Thus, subsequent research interested in such contexts, and any plan for the development interventions should (re)consider the impacts of non-climate national/and global environmental change in shaping the adaptation and coping strategies of the local community.

BackgroundThe recent research recommendations on the adaptations of poor are toward local specific investigations, aimed at a comprehensive understanding of the adaptation strategies through in-depth analysis of the status, and the explicit on how climate and non-climate global change processes constrain the inherent strategies. Intent to this idea, we have designed this study to assess the small-scale farmers’ adaptation and coping strategies in southwestern Ethiopia.MethodsThe agroecology approach steered in case-study design was used for the conceptual and analytical framework. The data collected from 335 households were analyzed for descriptive and multivariate analysis of variance and substantiated by qualitative data obtained through focused group discussion, interview, and observations.ResultsThe significant differences were observed in the watershed among households in the case studies on their adoption of the identified adaptation and coping strategies. The sustainability of preferred strategies was different along case studies, solely determined by the impact magnitude of the adaptations constraining factors. Although free ecosystem-based strategies become less practical and replacing by new strategies in the watershed, the processes were gradual, internal to the community and managed through adaptive learning in the highland. However, the paths were perceived as toward maladaptive, resulted by the state interventions which disrupted free adaptations, deteriorated adaptive learning of the community, and shaped the adaptation responses toward the interventions in the kolla agroecology.ConclusionsThe study implies that the situations of households’ adaptation strategies are beyond the reflections of their respective production ecology, designated within climate variability in the previous studies. The structural land use dynamics and associated resource tenure insecurity have greater constraining effects on the strategies than the impacts of climate variability in the kolla. Thus, subsequent research interested in such contexts, and any plan for the development interventions should (re)consider the impacts of non-climate national/and global environmental change in shaping the adaptation and coping strategies of the local community.

The increasing variability and extremes of hydrological cycles driven by climate change present critical challenges to water resource availability, raising the likelihood of floods and droughts. Understanding the potential impacts of changing climate patterns on future water resources is essential for developing effective adaptation strategies. Within the framework of the DISTENDER project (EU Horizon-ID 101056836), we focus on assessing the resilience of European watersheds to climate stressors by modeling future water scenarios and identifying sustainable water management practices.This research comprehensively examines the impact of climate and future land use changes on extreme events in Ave Watershed in Northern Portugal using the MIKE SHE hydrological model. Future climate change projections (2021 to 2050) and Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs) were obtained from CMIP6 and were statistically downscaled. Annual 1-day and 3-day high runoff were used as a proxy for the extreme high runoff characteristics. We then evaluate three adaptive strategies for those impacts:Nature-based solutions: Restoring wetlands identified in the "Extended Wetland Ecosystem data," implementing sustainable agricultural practices, and adopting low-impact development methods like green and sponge cities. Technical solutions: Introducing new reservoirs in sub-watersheds lacking reservoirs to simulate cumulative effects of rainwater retention, check dams, or other storage infrastructures. Hybrid approach: Combining nature-based and technical solutions to maximize the benefits of water resources management. The climate effects show an increase in the future 1-day and 3-day flood magnitudes across all gauges and return periods. The 100-year 1-day flood in Ave River is projected to range between 496 m³/s (33% increase in SSP 3-7.0) and 721 m³/s (94% in SSP 5-8.5), compared to 372 m³/s during the reference period (1980-2020). Future land use maps for 2020–2050 were generated using the CORINE land cover and the iCLUE model based on different SSPs. Incorporating these maps into the hydrological model shows further intensification of extreme events. For instance, using the 2050 land use map, the 100-year 1-day flood is expected to range 664 m³/s (77% in SSP 3-7.0) and 866 m³/s (133 % in SSP 5-8.5) compared to the reference period. Simulations of the adaptation strategies show that nature-based solutions can reduce flood peaks by 22–32%, while technical solutions achieve 20–46% reductions, depending on the SSP. The hybrid approach demonstrates the most efficient adaptation solution, reducing flood peaks by 37–67%. For SSPs 2-4.5 and SSP 3-7.0, the hybrid approach brings flood peaks close to those observed during the reference period.By analyzing these strategies individually and collectively, the study identifies the hybrid approach as the most effective for enhancing resilience to extreme events and ensuring the sustainability of water resources. Efficacy analyses of adaptation options are essential to guide a stakeholder dialog and facilitate the necessary transformation. DISTENDER provides a methodological framework to identify and develop climate adaptation and mitigation strategies by integrating these results into a decision-support system.Keywords: Adaptation strategies, Climate change, Land use, CMIP6 Climate Model, MIKE SHE, Ave catchment

Simple SummaryAdaptation strategies developed by sheep breeders against climate change are essential for sustainable production. This study was designed to determine the effects of climate change on perception, the risks of sheep farmers and the actions taken to mitigate these impacts. Nearly all farmers in both production systems agreed on the increased use of drugs and chemicals in their farming activities due to the increase in unknown and known disease outbreaks. The current study showed that transhumance farmers focused mainly on selling livestock as an adaptive strategy. In contrast, semi-intensive farmers concentrated on modifying their farm management and feed operations. Our findings show that semi-intensive farmers do not take deliberated and consistent action against climate change but adapt spontaneously.Sheep farmers’ perceptions of climate change and its impacts and the adaptation strategies they consider to address these risks are of great importance in ensuring the resilience of farming practice. This study focused on sheep farmers’ perception of climate change and the risks and actions taken to mitigate these impacts. A total of 68 surveys were carried out among sheep farmers (39 transhumance and 29 semi-intensive farmers) by two different representative production systems in Türkiye. Variables regarding the socio-economic profile, climate change impacts, and adaptation strategies were identified and analyzed. Principal component analysis and a Pearson Chi-square test were used to evaluate the data. Both farmers’ groups accepted and perceived climate change, showing good awareness and perception. The farmers’ attitudes towards adaptation to climate change were associated with production systems. Transhumance farmers had limited adaptation and coping strategies compared to semi-intensive farmers. Transhumance farmers focused mainly on selling livestock (mostly to cope with degraded natural grassland/feed deficiency) as an adaptive strategy. In contrast, semi-intensive farmers focused on modifying their farm management and feed operations, such as changing the feed ratio and supplement use, improving water and feed storage, and considering crop feed production. The knowledge obtained from this study could be helpful for farmers and policymakers who develop long-term small ruminant production strategies that consider the effects of climate change and adapt them to different farming systems in the Türkiye.

Climate change becomes a widely acknowledged and inevitable global challenge of 21st century. For developing countries like Ethiopia, it intensifies existing challenges of ensuring sustainable development. This study examined factors affecting climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies by taking in Protection Motivation Theory. The study draws on mixed research approach in order to assess the subjective understanding about climate change threats and identify the factors determining responses to climate change. While qualitative data were collected through focus group discussions and interviews, quantitative information was collected using semi structured survey from 296 randomly selected farmers from different agro-ecologies. Qualitative data was dominantly analyzed using content analysis while descriptive and inferential statistics were applied to analyze quantitative data. Almost all respondents (97%) perceived that climate change is occurring and threatening their wellbeing. Dwindling precipitation, increasing temperature and occurrence of human and animal disease were perceived to represent climate change. From nationally initiated strategies, farmers were found to largely practice soil and water conservation and agricultural intensification, which they perceived less costly and compatible to their level of expertise. The result of binary logistic regression revealed that perceived severity of climate change, perceived susceptibility to climate change threat, perceived own ability to respond, response efficacy and cost of practices predicted farmers motivation to practice climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies. Thus, building resilient system should go beyond sensitizing climate response mechanisms. Rural development and climate change adaptation policies should focus on human capital development and economic empowerment which would enable farmers pursue context specific adaptation and mitigation strategies thereby maintain sustainable livelihood.

Climate change is an inevitable global challenge of the 21st century. For developing countries like Ethiopia, it intensifies existing challenges towards ensuring sustainable development. Adopting the protection motivation theory, this study examined factors affecting the practice of climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies among farmers. The study employed a mixed research approach to assess the subjective understanding of farmers about climate change threats and identify factors determining their responses to climate change effects. Qualitative data were collected using focus group discussions and interviews. Quantitative information was gathered using semi-structured survey from 296 randomly selected farmers. Qualitative data was dominantly analyzed using content analysis, while descriptive and inferential statistics were applied to analyze quantitative data. Almost all respondents (97%) perceived that climate change was occurring and threatening their wellbeing. Dwindling precipitation, increasing temperature and occurrence of human and animal disease were perceived to represent climate change effects. From nationally initiated strategies, farmers were found to largely practice soil and water conservation, which they perceived as less costly and compatible to local knowledge. The result of binary logistic regression revealed that perceived severity of climate change, perceived susceptibility to climate change threat, perceived own ability to respond, response efficacy, and cost of practices predicted farmers’ motivation to practice climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies. Thus, building a resilient system should go beyond sensitizing climate response mechanisms. Policies should focus on human capital development and economic empowerment which would enable farmers to pursue context-specific adaptation and mitigation strategies, thereby maintaining a sustainable livelihood.

Three Horizon Europe projects - DISTENDER, KNOWING and NEVERMORE - have been launched to improve the understanding of the complex interactions between climate change impacts, risks and the design and implementation of mitigation and adaptation strategies. These projects aim to develop methodologies and tools that support the formulation of effective climate strategies, thereby improving decision-making processes. Together, they will generate: (1) new knowledge on earth system dynamics and improved climate prediction capabilities; (2) a better understanding of how socio-economic factors interact with climate factors to shape future scenarios; (3) innovative methods and context-specific knowledge for integrating adaptation and mitigation strategies; (4) sector-specific guidelines for implementing climate actions; and (5) policy recommendations relevant to multiple scales of governance. DISTENDER (DevelopIng STratEgies by integratIng mitigatioN, aDaptation, and participation to climate changE Risks) focuses on the co-development of integrated adaptation and mitigation strategies by combining local knowledge with global and regional data through participatory approaches. Its Decision Support System (DSS) will provide guidelines, tools and policy recommendations to promote adaptive and resilient climate strategies. KNOWING (Framework for defining climate change mitigation pathways based on integrated understanding and assessment of climate impacts, adaptation strategies and societal transformation) aims to develop a holistic modelling framework that quantifies the interaction between climate impacts, risks, mitigation and adaptation, providing critical support to region-specific policies and actions. NEVERMORE (New Enabling Visions and tools for End-useRs and stakeholders thanks to a common MOdeling fRamework towards a climatE neutral and resilient society) focuses on physical modelling and assessment of climate impacts and risk while maintaining coherence at National, EU and local levels. Its integrated modelling framework, supported by practical ICT tools, will facilitate decision-making to improve climate resilience. The three projects contribute to a comprehensive analysis of the local climate situation through risk and vulnerability assessments including also the adaptive capacity. Local-scale climate and socio-economic projections are used to estimate future impacts and emissions, helping to identify region-specific adaptation and mitigation actions. These actions are assessed and prioritised based on costs, co-benefits and trade-offs between multiple objectives.

Livestock production is thought to be adversely affected by detrimental effects of extreme climatic conditions. Consequently, adaptation, mitigation and amelioration of detrimental effects of extreme climates have played a major role in combating the climatic impact in livestock production. While measures to reduce the growth of greenhouse gas emissions are an important response to the threat of climate change, adaptation to climate change will also form a necessary part of the response. The salient adaptation strategies are developing less sensitive breeds, improving water availability, improving animal health, promoting women empowerment, developing various policy issues, establishing early warning systems and developing suitable capacity building programmes for different stakeholders. Developing adaptation strategies is therefore an important part of ensuring that countries are well prepared to deal with any negative impacts that may occur as a result of climate change. The integration of new technologies into the research and technology transfer systems potentially offers many opportunities to further the development of climate change adaptation strategies. Adapting to climate change and reducing GHG emissions may require significant changes in production technology and farming systems that could affect productivity. Many viable opportunities exist for reducing CH4 emissions from enteric fermentation in ruminant animals and from livestock manure management facilities. To be considered viable, these emission reduction strategies must be consistent with the continued economic viability of the producer and must accommodate cultural factors that affect livestock ownership and management. This chapter also elaborates on ameliorative strategies that should be given consideration to prevent economic losses incurred due to environmental stresses on livestock productivity. Reducing the impact of climatic stresses on livestock production requires multidisciplinary approaches which emphasise animal nutrition, housing and animal health. Therefore, emphasis should be given to all three aspects of adaptation, mitigation and amelioration strategies to sustain livestock production under the changing climate scenario.

The article focuses on aspects of agricultural enterprise functioning in a VUCA environment. The relevance of the research topic is determined by the increasing turbulence of the external environment, the intensification of the influence of volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity factors on the activities of agricultural enterprises, as well as the need to develop flexible managerial decisions capable of ensuring the resilience, competitiveness, and strategic adaptability of grain-producing enterprises under contemporary economic and geopolitical challenges. The study aims to substantiate theoretical aspects and provide practical recommendations for developing adaptive management strategies in enterprises operating in a VUCA environment. The study of the emergence of the VUCA concept revealed its close connection with the development of strategic thinking, leadership, and organizational management in dynamic global realities. It was established that each component of such an environment requires specific management approaches to reduce risks associated with instability, information insufficiency, multifactorial interdependence, and ambiguity in interpreting managerial situations. Volatility requires prompt decision-making, uncertainty necessitates scenario thinking, complexity demands integrative interdisciplinary approaches, and ambiguity calls for strategic innovation. The research demonstrated that the Ukrainian VUCA environment has specific features that significantly affect the functioning of grain-producing enterprises. The main factors identified include military threats, logistical constraints, volatility in global markets, climate change, internal political instability, and high levels of information turbulence. The combination of these factors underscores the need to develop adaptive management strategies that enhance the resilience of production systems and ensure their capacity to operate effectively under unpredictable conditions. It is well established that adaptive strategies are not merely tools for managerial optimization but fundamental mechanisms for the long-term development of enterprises in VUCA environments. They should consider strategic sensitivity, flexible resource management, alignment with strategic goals, and the capacity to implement changes quickly. Implementing such strategies will minimize the negative impact of external shocks, increase economic resilience, and create new competitive advantages. Keywords: uncertainty, VUCA environment, grain-producing enterprises, risk, adaptive strategies.

The existence of multiple stresses and poor adaptive capacity make Africa most susceptible to climate change. In Ethiopia the potential adverse effects of climate change on the agricultural sector, the main stay of the country’s economy, are major concerns. To ensure food security, reducing the vulnerability of agricultural systems through different feasible adaptation strategies is one of the policy options in response to climate change impact This study is a first of its kind in examining the relative effectiveness of various adaptation strategies in ensuring farmers’ food security and enhancing level of sesame production in rural area of Western Ethiopia. In addition to data obtained from meteorological stations, cross-sectional data were collected interviewing 400 farm households. Descriptive statistics, two-stage least square (2SLS) and double-hurdle (D-H) models were used to analyze the data. The results of the study indicate that households are adapting using various strategies to the looming climate change in the area. The study also indicated that, though sesame production was negatively impacted by the climate hazards, smallholders have continued its production at minimum level due mainly to its high value crop character. 2SLS estimation results revealed that rainfall and temperature variability have negative impact on household’s food security. Moreover, the result indicates effectiveness of climate adaptation strategies namely agronomic practices, irrigation and soil and water conservation in reducing climatic risks and ensuring household food security. The result also implicitly indicated that farmers continued to adapt sesame production under risk climate and it is contributing to farmers’ food security. Further, the result revealed that climate change adaptation strategies have positively impacted the level of sesame production. Consequently, policy that augments households’ climate awareness and promotes adaptation decision and strategies could help reducing risks pertaining to climate and thereby improves farmers’ food security status and production of high value export potential crop—sesame.

The current study was conducted in Bara Locality- North Kordofan - Sudan to assess climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies among agrarian communities. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected by randomly interviewing 150 respondents from ten villages, using questionnaire. Descriptive statistics in SPSS software package and Microsoft Excel were used for data analysis. Results of study showed that agrarian communities, and due to climate change, have enforced to develop ten adaptation strategies suitable for agriculture in dryland conditions. The most adaptation strategies being used by the agrarian communities, are cultivation in different directions locally Sheraik (77%), sowing before rain locally Ramail (77%) and reducing cultivated area as mentioned by 67% of interviewed respondents. In forests sector, around 65 % of the interviewed respondents have been practiced agro-forestry as an adaptation strategy. The interviewees were also able to figure out 6 possible mitigation strategies to stave off climate change effects. These strategies are for example building capacity of agrarian communities (73%) and provision of early mature, high yielding and drought tolerant crops (63%). The study come out with some suggestions in order to pave the way for policymakers to tailor suitable future interventions to mitigate the impact of climate change among agrarian communities.

This paper provides an overview of farmers’ awareness and a typology of adaptation strategies undertaken in order to combat climate change at the farm‐level in developing countries. The review suggests that the extent to which farmers are aware of climate change is uneven, and the link between perception and action is often unclear. Farmers adopt a range of strategies from financial responses, to agricultural changes, to religious and cultural strategies, to the use of local and wider support networks. However, whether these actions are adaptation or coping strategies is debatable. Response to climate change has both spatial and temporal dimensions; and a host of socio‐economic factors (e.g., lack of resources, gender or cultural identities) influence adaptation strategies. Finally, these adaptation strategies can be seen as nested within broadly defined livelihood strategies.

Climate change poses significant threats to vulnerable communities in Nigeria and requires information on adaptation and resilience strategies, particularly in rural areas where access to modern communication technologies is limited. This study evaluates the importance of oramedia forms in communicating climate change adaptation and resilience strategies to raise public awareness and participation in sustainable development in Nigeria. It deals with the issue of the inability of the majority of the public to understand climate resilience strategies, which makes these strategies less effective. The research used qualitative data gathered from interview with local communities, stakeholders, and experts to identify common views, and knowledge gaps, and to assess how well current communication strategies work. The main findings show that oramedia can help close communication gaps, promote community involvement, and support a collaborative effort for climate resilience and adaptation. Moreover, the research points out the need for cultural relevance and context-specific messaging so that communities not only grasp but also actively engage in adaptation strategies. The effects of these findings go beyond environmental issues, highlighting the need for effective communication in public health efforts, given the health risks linked to climate change. By creating a framework for using oramedia as a means of education and engagement, this study adds to the conversation on sustainable development and climate resilience, suggesting that better communication strategies can lead to improved health outcomes and community welfare in a time of growing environmental problems.

Climate change is a critical sustainability challenge for alpine tourism and the ski industry. Climate change adaptation is characterised as identifying and taking advantage of new business opportunities plus reducing physical risks. For adaptation strategies to be sustainable they should consider the environment, economy and society. While several adaptive ski industry strategies have been identified, not all can fulfil these criteria; some adaptive strategies could be perceived as unsustainable, or maladaptive. This paper provides a qualitative, perceptual study of ski industry stakeholders in Queenstown, New Zealand, addressing perceptions of climate change adaptation by the core industry, wider industry actors, local community and tourists. It answers two research questions: What are perceived as the main climate change adaptation strategies for Queenstown's ski industry? How do ski industry stakeholders perceive current adaptation strategies in terms of sustainability? It finds snowmaking central to addressing both current weather variability and medium/long-term future climate change. Ski-field operators use snowmaking to ensure the industry's economic sustainability, to extend seasons even beyond traditional norms, but with little consideration for environmental or social sustainability. It finds some local people questioning snowmaking on ethical and environmental grounds, and skier acceptance of snowmaking connected to activity preference.