The Appearance of Whale Sharks (Rhincodon typus) Based on Environmental Factors in Kwatisore Waters, Nabire Regency, Central Papua Province

The appearance of whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) is related to the availability of food in certain waters and is a tourist attraction so integrated management is needed so that they do not become a threat to whale sharks. Whale sharks appear regularly and take place throughout the year with the largest number of individuals only occurring in Kwatisore waters. This study aims to examine the bioecology of whale sharks, which is related to appearance based on individuals, number and time of appearance and sex. Primary data collection was carried out from January to March 2023, using the census method on 4 charter fishing gear units anchored in Kwatisore waters. The results showed that 21 individuals of whale sharks appeared with a total of 225 appearances in January, 245 appearances in February and 248 appearances in March and there was one new individual who migrated into Kwatisore waters with ID number 184. Whale sharks appear mostly in the morning with a percentage of 100% with a total length ranging from 3 to 7.5 m.Keywords: Appearance; New Individuals; Whale Sharks

Background Whale sharks usually form aggregations by gender and age in many nearshore waters, but they can be as well solitary wanderers. In the Eastern Pacific, there are regular sightings of whale sharks in the Gulf of California and the Galapagos Islands. Tracking studies indicated movement of individuals from Galapagos to the edge of the continental shelf off northern Peru. Although the presence of whale sharks off the Peruvian coast has been reported since 1955, no proper research has been conducted so far. Therefore, there is a critical information gap on their biology, ecology and population status, fundamental information to plan local and international conservation actions. In Peru, no direct fishing occurs, but incidental captures had been reported and many individuals retained. In spite of being a member of international conventions, Peru does not have any local or national protection laws for whale sharks. We started a program; the first one conducted in Peru, to generate knowledge about whale sharks in the region. Approach Our monitoring program includes two components: interviews and boat surveys. Interviews were conducted with fishermen, on-board observers, captains and diving companies in fishing ports located in northern Peru. Interviews included questions about whale shark presence, their behavior, body metrics, dates, times and areas of sightings, as well as an explanation with images for the correct identification of species. Boat surveys for whale shark sightings were planned based on the interview information. During each survey, we recorded whale shark biological data like size, gender, behavior, scars, geo-position, date, time, besides water temperature. Pictures taken were compared with the database from Mexico and submitted to the Wildbook of Whale Sharks. Results We conducted 185 interviews that provided information on 272 whale shark observations. Interviews suggest that there are two marked seasons for whale shark aggregations in Peru, one in the austral summer and one in the spring, with the highest densities observed in the summer. The whale sharks were seen mostly as solitary animals, and within 50 miles off the coast. The individual size was estimated between 10 and 49 feet. The juveniles showed a mode of 16 feet and most of them were observed while feeding. Adults (>29 feet) were usually seen in the open ocean with a size mode of 32 feet. From October 2014 to March 2015 we conducted 17 boat surveys. Four more were conducted in the summer 2015–2016. Surveys resulted in twelve whale shark encounters, ten of which were observed while feeding, half as solitary animals and the rest in groups. The size of these sharks was estimated between 13 and 17 feet, which classifies them as juvenile sharks. The twelve observations resulted in ten unique individuals without a match in any of the photoID databases. From this, we were only able to determine the gender of eight of them resulting in 100% males. Conclusions Interviews and boat surveys indicate a prevalent presence of whale sharks in Peru, which is influenced by seasons. Individuals are more common during the austral spring and summer. There seems to be spatial segregation with larger whale sharks, likely adults, seen in the open ocean, while juveniles are seen closer to the coast. The northern coast of Peru seems to be used by juvenile males during the summer for feeding purposes in shallow waters. Our study has photo-identified ten new individual whale sharks for the Eastern Pacific. This represents a unique opportunity to conduct more research in the region to elucidate connectivity with other areas and to involve stakeholders in future whale shark management and conservation.

The Mexican Caribbean is considered one of the most important sites for whale shark aggregations. Whale shark groups of over 300 individuals have been recorded frequently. There is little published information regarding the ecology of the whale shark in Mexico, and the role that the Mexican Caribbean plays as habitat for this species. This area has been recognized as important for the whale shark and therefore it is necessary to determine the environmental factors that shape the distribution of these animals. The aim of this study was to identify key environmental factors associated with whale shark feeding aggregations and to determine the patterns in habitat suitability for whale sharks in the Mexican Caribbean through the modeling approach of maximum entropy. Whale shark data obtained for this study included 250 records during April to September (2008–2012). The MaxEnt model performed better than random and produced an area under the curve (AUC) score of 0.946. Primary productivity and sea surface temperature were the variables most strongly related to whale shark sightings. The model predicted a high suitability in areas located to the north of Isla Contoy and the offshore area east of Isla Contoy named “Afuera” (>0.75), with medium suitability north of Cabo Catoche (>0.5) and lower suitability for the northeast of Cabo Catoche (<0.5). The habitat suitability maps also indicated seasonal variations, showing a higher prediction of whale shark sightings during the rainy season (June to October), when primary productivity is higher in the area.

Background The whale shark conservation programme along the East Godavari River Estuarine Ecosystem (EGREE) region, of Andhra Pradesh, east-coast of India, was started in June 2012 under the direction of the Government of India, the United Nations Development Programme, the Global Environment Facility and the Government of Andhra Pradesh Godavari Project. It was started for the conservation and management of globally threatened species protected under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972, and employing cross sectoral mechanisms among various stakeholders, namely enforcement departments (state and central governments), production sectors (industries), fishermen and the public. Approach Questionnaire surveys are conducted to learn the present status of whale sharks along the Andhra Pradesh Coast, and literature surveys are done to understand the past and present whale shark distribution along the east coast of India. Major fish landing centres are monitored to record whale sharks landings, including seasonality, size and sex ratio. Massive awareness programmes and campaigns are conducted to improve the knowledge levels of various stakeholders. A whale shark conservation action plan is being prepared for the Andhra Pradesh coast by cross sectoral mechanisms. Results Fishery experts, researchers and local fishermen opined that until late 2007, the whale shark was a rare visitor to the EGREE region, but the number of sharks has increased in recent years. According to fishermen, whale sharks are seen at a depth of 20–40 m and sometimes come close to shore where they become entangled in shore seine nets. The fishermen revealed that whale sharks are seen mostly solitary or in small groups of 3 to 5 individuals, but sometimes over 200–300 individuals will aggregate in the open sea near the EGREE Region. As per the available literature, the total number of whale sharks killed as bycatch was 20 along the Andhra Pradesh coast between 1889 and 1998 (110 years). But surveys by the EGREE Foundation that between June 2013 and January 2016, 79 individual whale sharks were killed. The whale shark landings happened in all months except during the fishing ban from 16th April to 15th June. In September of 2014, 22 whale sharks were brought to the landing center. Of these 22 sharks, four were alive after being caught in a shore-seine fishing net. Both questionnaire and field surveys revealed that coastal and marine areas of the EGREE region have become a hot spot for whale sharks in recent years. The size of the whale sharks brought to the landing centers ranged between 2.1–6.68 m (mean 3.71±SD 1.04, n=44), and males (58%) outnumbered females. Based on the study, conservation and management measures are being taken by the EGREE Foundation through 1) massive awareness programmes to sensitize the fishermen and local public, 2) education and awareness applied to students and elected representatives of state and central governments, and 3) training of enforcement staff such as the Indian Coast Guard, Marine Police, Fisheries, Forest and Customs and Central Excise. A whale shark conservation action plan is being prepared for the Andhra Pradesh Coast by involving various state and central government departments, production sectors like oil &amp; gas operators, and private port operators, local fishermen and policy makers. Conclusions This study indicated that whale shark numbers have increased and a globally significant aggregation of whale sharks is happening in the coastal and marine areas of EGREE region. Long-term research and monitoring is needed in this region.

The appearance of whale sharks in several waters in Indonesia has now encouraged the development of tourism activities based on whale sharks. One area that has become a tourist destination for whale sharks both locally and abroad is Botubarani Waters, Gorontalo. Some experts reveal that the presence of whale sharks is influenced by environmental factors, such as salinity, temperature and pH. This study was aimed to measure the value of water quality (temperature, salinity and pH) in the Botubarani whale shark tourist area, Gorontalo so as to create a balance between whale shark tourism and the preservation of the tourist attraction itself. This research was conducted in Botubarani waters, from 8 March to 8 April 2020. The data collection of temperature, salinity and pH was carried out for 30 days. The data collection point is the area where whale sharks were found to surface. Data were collected on temperature, salinity and pH, respectively, using alcohol thermometer, seawater hydrometer and pH test paper. The results showed that the temperature values in Botubarani waters ranged from 24-30.3 oC, salinity ranged from 33-36 ppt and pH 7. The conditions of Botubarani waters (temperature, salinity and pH) were still in the optimal category for both whale sharks and marine tourism

Background The conservation of whale sharks, like other endangered species, requires, among others factors, an understanding of the effects that variability in habitat have on long-term species viability. In the Mexican Northern Caribbean, a Habitat Monitoring Program for the whale shark was established in 2005 to describe the spatio-temporal variability of environmental data and whale shark distribution. Approach From 2005–2014, when whale sharks were present in the region (May to September), monthly trips were made to record whale shark sightings and hydrological data (sea surface temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen). Water samples were collected to determine nutrients (nitrite, nitrate, ammonium, silicates and phosphates), as well as chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) and zooplankton biomass. We compared the environmental variables at sites with and without whale sharks present. Maps of zooplankton biomass were produced for each year in order to explore their relationship with the distribution and abundance of whale sharks. Results Areas with high whale shark abundance have been identified inside the study region. At these sites the whale shark feeds, taking advantage of the abundance of zooplankton, as a result of two events: the intensity of the Yucatan upwelling and the presence of dense masses of fish eggs. The whale shark aggregation areas influenced by the upwelling were characterized by high Chl-a concentrations (mean±SE 0.9±0.4 mg/m3), high nutrients and mixed zooplankton in which several groups were present (usually copepods were the most abundant group). In the whale shark aggregation area called “Afuera”, the zooplankton samples were dominated by fish eggs. This area registered significantly higher zooplankton biomass (mean±SE 3356.1±1960.8 mg/m3) in comparison with that recorded in upwelling areas (mean±SE 103.5±57.2 mg/m3). Zooplankton biomass was the most influential environmental variable to determine whale shark abundance, supporting the close relationship between this species and their food availability. Spatio-temporal changes in distribution and abundance of whale sharks have been recorded in the region, as well as changes in their food availability. Conclusions The whale shark uses selected areas within the Mexican Caribbean. These areas have different hydrobiological characteristics. Changes in distribution and abundance of whale sharks inside the study area may make it more difficult to implement suitable management strategies. We need more data to understand the reason for these changes, for example increased knowledge about the ocean circulation patterns at this site and other factors that may influence and characterize spawning inside the aggregation area. The continuity of hydrobiological monitoring is key to ensure the integrity of this critical habitat.

Sumbawa is famous for its marine tourism, apart from the beauty of its beaches, Sumbawa also has marine fauna that attracts the attention of tourists, namely whale sharks. It is recorded that there are around 99 species of Whale Sharks located in Saleh Bay, Sumbawa. Thus, making Saleh Bay the location with the second largest whale shark population in Indonesia and UNESCO designated Saleh Bay as part of the SAMOTA biosphere reserve. Currently, whale sharks have protected fauna according to the decree of the Minister of Marine Affairs and Fisheries No. 18 of 2013. This is due to the pollution of whale shark habitats by pollutants including garbage and microplastics. In addition, the Overexploitation of whale sharks is some of the causes of the significant decline in whale shark populations. Marine ecotourism activities in the form of exhibiting Whale Sharks to tourists can be an alternative way of sustainable use because it has minimal impact on individual Whale Sharks, in addition, marine ecotourism activities can also provide economic benefits to the Sumbawa community and regional development including supporting efforts to protect and preserve the whale shark fauna. The Study "Community-Based Whale Shark Conservation to Strengthen Marine Tourism Management in Sumbawa “aims to present a blue economy model for coastal communities in Sumbawa and increase community participation in conservation activities, as well as improve the welfare of coastal communities in Sumbawa.

Background The whale shark (Rhincodon typus) is a prominent species in Cenderawasih Bay. Its recent association with moored lift-net fisheries there has led to an increase in tourism that facilitates encounters for human snorkelers and SCUBA divers with the sharks. This association has also supported opportunities for research to discover various elements of their biology, ecology, movements and genetics. An understanding of the genetic composition of the sharks in Cenderawasih Bay and their relationships with whale sharks elsewhere in the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific Ocean is important for their conservation and to help design marine protected areas. Approach Skin samples from whale sharks in Cenderawasih Bay were collected with modified hog ear notch pliers and small biopsy tips. The samples were preserved in 96% ethanol and stored at 4°C in the laboratory until DNA extraction. The DNA template was amplified for the cytochrome oxidase I (COI) gene. The nucleotide composition and genetic diversity (polymorphisms, haplotypes, and nucleotides) were analyzed. The results from whale sharks in Cenderawasih Bay were compared with those available in Genbank for nearby areas of the Indian and Western Pacific oceans with the neighbor-joining method. Evolutionary distances and haplotype networks were calculated. Results Seven haplotypes were detected among the 31 whale sharks sampled in Cenderawasih Bay, for a haplotype diversity (Hd) of 0.1871 (variance = 0.00859, s.d. = 0.093). The nucleotide diversity (Φ) was 0.00244 (±0.0013) and the values for theta were 0.75094 per shark and 0.00722 per site. The neighbour-joining tree for individual whale sharks from Cenderawasih Bay and other regions appeared to be closely related to each other. They also appeared to be closely related to whale sharks sampled elsewhere in the Indian and Western Pacific oceans (Chi-square, Chi2: 3.620, df: 5, p: 0.605). Haplotype one has highest frequency (37 individuals), one haplotype has two individuals, and six other haplotypes each have one individual. The three last haplotypes have just one individual, respectively. The whale sharks that we sampled in Cenderawasih Bay had low genetic diversity (haplotype, nucleotide and polymorphic). Conclusion 31 whale sharks in Cenderawasih Bay were very closely related, and these sharks were closely related to whale sharks elsewhere in the Indian and Western Pacific oceans. The extent of movements among reproductive sharks in this large region is unknown as is the frequency and magnitude of mating among sharks from these different areas. Further research is needed to monitor the long-term movements of sharks within and among regions, particularly reproductively mature males and females, to help design conservation plans for whale sharks and the habitats that they might depend on for feeding andreproducing.

Whale sharks are megafauna that inhabit tropical and warm subtropical seas as filter feeders and prey on small-sized organisms by filtering seawater. Environmental factors, such as sea surface temperature (SST), salinity (Sal), chlorophyll-a (Chl-a), ocean surface currents (currents), and the abundance of certain small marine biota, play a role in the appearance of whale sharks. This study aimed to analyze the oceanographic factors influencing whale shark appearance. Whale shark occurrence data were collected between June 2022 and July 2024. The number of whale sharks appearing in the waters of Botubarani Beach in 2022, 2023, and 2024 were 224, 337, and 219, respectively. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used to identify the most influential oceanographic parameters affecting whale shark occurrence. The seasonal averages of several environmental parameters in the waters of Botubarani Beach, aligned with the whale shark appearance periods, were as follows: sea surface temperature (SST) 20.03 °C, salinity 33.35 PSU, chlorophyll-a, 0.135 mg/m³; and surface current speed 0.16 m/s. PCA results indicate that the most influential environmental oceanographic parameters on whale shark occurrence at Botubarani Beach are the surface current velocity and surface chlorophyll-a concentration.

A study on whale sharks have been carried out in Teluk Cenderawasih National Park (TCNP) on May-June 2014. The objectives of this study<br />were to analysis bioecological of whale shark, the perceptions of local communities and tourists on whale shark ecotourism development and to<br />formulate the ecotourism development strategy in TCNP. Data were collected through observations and and counting the number of whale sharks,<br />gender identification and age categories, and estimation of body length; measurement of some environmental variables (sea surface temperature,<br />salinity, sea brightness); and regarding their perception of whale sharks as objects of tourist attraction. The result showed that the generally the<br />whale sharks come to the surface in waters that there are many bagan fisheries that many fish in the net. Whale sharks feed and come to the surface<br />in the fishing platform in the morning until noon with a duration of 15-30 minutes. Physical enviroment conditions of sea in TCNP were temperatures<br />28-31°C; salinity 33-34‰ and sea brightness 7-12 m. The total number of the emergence of the whale sharks was 30 times and identified as 15<br />animals, all young males, measuring between 3 and 6 m, generally do not have injuries. The perseptions of local communities about development of<br />whale shark ecotourism were positive and will be supported this program. Generally, most tourists, of which 87,88% of them were foreigners, gave<br />positive perceptions on whale shark attractions in TCTN, from attractive to very attractive, although there are some aspects of travel managements<br />that need to be improved, such as the availability of information services, tourist guides, and the comfort level. Some development strategies must be<br />done, i.e. continuous monitoring of whale shark, human resource capacity building, provision of tourist support infrastructure, coordination and<br />synergy with stakeholders, and increase public awareness and the development of cultural tourism attractions as an integrated ecotuorism program. Keywords: bioecological, ecotourism, development strategy, Teluk Cenderwasih National Park, whale shark

Whale sharks are generally associated with environmental factors that drive their movements to specific locations where food availability is high. Consequently, foraging is believed to be the main reason for the formation of whale shark aggregations. Feeding aggregations occur mainly in nearshore areas and are composed primarily of immature individuals. Conversely, aggregations of mature adults are rarely observed, and their occurrence is correlated with oceanic environments. Despite an increase in the number of whale shark studies, information on mating and parturition grounds is still lacking. In the present work, we assessed the ecological and behavioural aspects of the whale sharks that visit the archipelago of São Pedro and São Paulo (ASPSP), located ~1,000 km off the coast of Brazil in the equatorial Atlantic Ocean. Forty-nine whale sharks were recorded from February 2005 to May 2014. The estimated mean ± SD size was 8.27 ± 2.52 m (range: 2.5–14.0 m) with no significant differences in size across the year. The maturational stages were classified by size as immature (<8.0 m; 32.56%) and mature (>9.0 m; 46.51%); with almost half of the observed animals being mature specimens. The majority of sightings occurred between February and June. During this period, the ocean current weakens and the waters are enriched by eggs and larvae of fishes and invertebrates that attract marine life to forage. At the same time, evidence of reproductive activity in adult females (i.e. swollen abdomen and bite marks on the pectoral fins), and the potential mating behaviour exhibited by one male, suggest that the ASPSP area might also have a role in whale shark reproduction. Irrespective of its use for feeding or reproduction, this insular habitat serves as a meeting point for both juvenile and adult whale sharks, and may play an important ecological role for the species.

In-water viewing of sharks by tourists has become a popular and lucrative industry. There is some concern that interactions with tourists with ecotourism operations might harm sharks through disruption of behaviours. Here, we analysed five years of whale shark (Rhincodon typus) encounter data by an ecotourism industry at Ningaloo Reef, Western Australia, to assess the impact of ecotourism interactions on shark visitation, within the context of the biological and physical oceanography of the region. Our data base consisted of 2823 encounter records for 951 individual whale sharks collected by ecotourism operators between 2007 and 2011. We found that total encounters per whale shark and encounters per boat trip increased through time. On average, whale sharks re-encountered in subsequent years were encountered earlier, stayed longer and tended to be encountered more often within a season than sharks that were only encountered in a single year. Sequential comparisons between years did not show any patterns consistent with disturbance and the rate of departure of whale sharks from the aggregation was negatively correlated to the number of operator trips. Overall, our analysis of this multi-year data base found no evidence that interactions with tourists affected the likelihood of whale shark re-encounters and that instead, physical and biological environmental factors had a far greater influence on whale shark visitation rates. Our approach provides a template for assessing the effects of ecotourism interactions and environmental factors on the visitation patterns of marine megafauna over multiple years.

Foraging ecology of whale sharks ( Rhincodon typus) within Bahía de Los Angeles, Baja California Norte, México

The whale shark (Rhincodon typus) is a protected marine species based on the Minister of Marine Affairs and Fisheries number 18/KEPMEN-KP/2013 Decree. Based on the regulation, the Botubarani Waters area is designated a marine protected area. This Study was conducted to determine the pattern of whale shark appearance in the Gorontalo Bay Conservation Area. The method used is photo ID to distinguish between individuals and direct monitoring to identify injuries, gender, and behaviours. The result shows that there were 59 individuals recorded throughout 2016-2024. Based on the seasonal calendar, whale sharks appear in Botubarani almost all year from 2020 to 2024, with the peak months being March to August. The average length is 3.5 - 6.5 meters. Injuries were found on some bodies caused by tourism activities. Overall, the data on whale shark appearances from 2016 to 2024 shows a non-linear pattern, reflecting the complex impact of biotic, abiotic, and anthropogenic factors. The dynamics of whale sharks’ appearance depend on environmental factors such as sea surface temperature, water productivity, and food sources. The behaviour of whale sharks is influenced by factors such as feeding activity, the presence of Nike fish (Awaous melanocephalus) , and the weather.

Kwatisore waters in the Cenderawasih Bay National Park area is one of the whale sharks’ habitats in Indonesia. As shark sightings seem to occur daily there is the opportunity for ecotourism development in the area. This study aims to quantify the occurrence of whale sharks at Kwatisore, and estimate the carrying capacity of the area, together with its suitability for ecotourism based on whale shark aggregations. Primary data collection on the appearance of whale sharks was carried out every day through a census technique on 7 designated areas (Apr to Aug, 2022). Every whale shark that appears on the surface of the water is photographed and identified by an ID number based on the I3Sv2.0 and its sex determined. During the census period, 709 whale sharks’ sightings were recorded mostly in the morning. There were 15 individuals in total, all males with a total length ranging from 3-7 m. The carrying capacity of the area for whale shark ecotourism in Kwatisore waters is a maximum of 252 people per day who are allowed to interact with whale sharks, while the tourism suitability index is included in the very appropriate category for whale shark tourism.