The advantages of deliberate errors in promoting college students' memory retention and transfer.

Aim/Purpose: This paper examines the potential of ChatGPT-assisted retrieval practice to enhance students’ final exam performance. ChatGPT was utilized to generate questions and deliver timely feedback during retrieval practice, supporting learning in large class settings where providing personalized feedback is often challenging. Background: Students often excel in continuous assessments yet face significant challenges in final exams, largely due to the demanding nature of these exams that require the recall and application of accumulated knowledge. This persistent issue highlights a gap in traditional study practices and underscores the need for innovative strategies to support long-term memory retention. This study explores how ChatGPT can bridge this gap by supporting retrieval practice, an evidence-based strategy known to improve long-term memory retention. Methodology: This study adopts a retrospective cohort design, comparing final exam scores between previous cohorts who did not use ChatGPT for retrieval practice (control group) and current cohorts who did (experimental group). ChatGPT was used to generate objective questions for retrieval practice and provide immediate feedback to students. The primary sample consists of second-year education students enrolled in the Measurement and Evaluation in Education course, with 64 students randomly selected for each group. In addition to analyzing exam scores, the study incorporates complementary findings from students’ feedback collected at the end of the semester to gain a deeper understanding of their experiences with ChatGPT-assisted retrieval practice. Contribution: As higher education in Malaysia increasingly shifts towards alternative assessments, this study highlights a simple yet impactful retrieval practice as a learning strategy that integrates formative assessment with feedback. With the aid of generative AI such as ChatGPT, such strategies can be implemented easily and effectively by offering a practical solution that enhances exam performance while reducing the lecturer’s workload. Findings: The results of the study indicate that students who engaged in AI-assisted retrieval practice using ChatGPT performed significantly better on their final exams compared to those who did not. A Welch’s t-test revealed a significant difference in exam scores between the control group (students without ChatGPT-assisted practice) and the experimental group (students with ChatGPT-assisted practice). While the findings demonstrate the effectiveness of ChatGPT in enhancing academic performance, they also underscore the importance of complementing AI support with human feedback to address complex learning needs and provide deeper contextual understanding. Recommendations for Practitioners: Practitioners should consider using AI tools like ChatGPT to support retrieval practice by helping students generate questions and receive immediate feedback, particularly in large classes. AI feedback should be complemented with human input to address complex questions and provide deeper understanding. Providing students with guidance on using AI tools effectively can maximize their benefits while balancing group activities with individual tasks ensures both collaboration and personalized engagement. Regularly gathering student feedback and tracking performance can help refine the integration of AI tools to better meet learning goals. Recommendation for Researchers: Future studies should investigate the long-term impact of ChatGPT-assisted retrieval practice on memory retention and explore how different types of ChatGPT-generated feedback influence learning outcomes. Additionally, the research could examine how the integration of lecturer-generated or student-generated questions in ChatGPT-assisted retrieval practice affects learning and whether varying these approaches could further enhance memory retention and exam performance across different educational contexts and subjects. Impact on Society: ChatGPT-assisted retrieval practice, when effectively implemented, transforms retrieval practice from being just an assessment tool into a powerful learning strategy that enhances memory retention. With ChatGPT providing timely feedback and supporting educators and students, it can reduce the burden on educators in large classrooms while empowering students to take greater control of their learning. Future Research: Future research should explore the longer and more frequent use of ChatGPT-assisted retrieval practice to give students more opportunities for individual engagement. Studies could also focus on improving ChatGPT’s feedback for more complex questions and finding the best ways to combine AI feedback with human input. Expanding research into different subjects and tracking long-term effects on learning and performance would help better understand how ChatGPT can be effectively used in education.

A wealth of researches has indicated that retrieval practice can be used as an effective means to improve memory. Recently the effects of retrieval practice have captured the attention of contemporary researchers who are interested in educational applications of retrieval practice. Some researchers have examined the effectiveness of retrieval practice relative to elaborative studying with concept mapping, and found that practicing retrieval produces greater gains in meaningful learning than elaborative studying with concept mapping which has received comment and query by researchers advocating constructivism who thought, compared with practice retrieval, concept mapping is too complex to master. In view of these criticism, the current research examined the effectiveness of retrieval practice and concept mapping from the perspective of cognitive load, it is hypothesized that the intrinsic load of study task which depends on learners’ prior knowledge level has different influence on retrieval practice and concept mapping, and the concept mapping strategy is more complex than retrieval practice, so it could produce more extraneous load on learner and influence the effectiveness. Two experiments were conducted to test the hypotheses. In experiment 1, 120 college students were engaged in a 2 (prior knowledge level: high vs. low) × 3 (study strategy type: retrieval practice vs. concept mapping and repeated study) between-subjects design of experiment, which was aimed to study the different influence of prior knowledge level on the effectiveness of three types of strategies. In experiment 2, 43 college students participated in a within-subjects design of experiment, each student completed a partial concept mapping of one science text and practiced retrieval of a second text which was designed to study the influence of strategy’s complexity on strategy’s effectiveness. The results indicated that on correct rate of memory retention and transfer, the main effect of prior knowledge level wasn't significant, but there was an interaction between learning strategies and prior knowledge level: under the condition of retrieval practice strategy, there is no significant difference on the correct rate of retention and transfer between participates with high prior knowledge and participates with low prior knowledge; as the concept mapping strategy concerned, the participates with high prior knowledge were significantly higher than participates with low prior knowledge on the correct rate of retention and transfer. In addition, the complexity of the strategy would increase learners' extraneous load, but it didn't have decisive influence on the effectiveness of the strategy. In terms of result, it was concluded that the reason why retrieval practice could produce more memory retention and transfer than concept mapping is not because of that its strategy is easier to be master, it is that the concept mapping strategy was very dependent on learner's prior knowledge level. Relatively, retrieval practice is not dependent on learner's prior knowledge level. The results have some important implications. Firstly, retrieval practice is an effective tool to promote retention and transfer, it indeed can enhance subsequent recall more than concept mapping. Thus, educators should pay more attention to the effectiveness of retrieval practice rather than view it as an assessment device to measure what a student knows. Secondly, the findings support the theory that retrieval practice enhances learning by retrieval-specific mechanisms rather than by elaborative study processes.

Previous studies have shown that reinstatement of spatial and temporal background information during learning can promote memory retention in adults. However, the effect in children is unclear. In order to explore the effect of episodic context reinstatement on the memory retention of different age groups, first-grade students, third-grade students, and third-year college students studied two word lists. When the words were presented mixed together, the participants were told to either restudy the words under intentional learning conditions or make list discrimination judgements by indicating the list from which each word had originated. Results revealed that the retrieval practice based on the episodic context reinstatement paradigm showed a phased development trend in the participants compared to restudy. Episodic context reinstatement only promoted memory retention in the third-grade children and college students, but not in the first-grade children. During the early elementary school years, children do not have relatively mature episodic memory ability and cannot output memories according to context clues. Our finding suggests important guidance for the age-appropriate use of tests as instructional tools in basic education. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? One recent theory of retrieval-based learning is the episodic context account; it promotes memory retention by reinstate the context of a prior learning episode. Previous studies have confirmed in the adults that the episodic context reinstatement was the main reason for retrieval practice to promote memory retention through the list discrimination tasks What does this study add? This study revealed that the retrieval practice based on the episodic context reinstatement paradigm showed a phased development trend in the participants. Episodic context reinstatement only promoted memory retention in the third-grade children and college students, but not in the first-grade children, and the results support the episodic context assumption, namely that episodic context reinstatement is the key factor in memory retention. The results of this study can explain why most prior work has observed the effect of retrieval practice in the groups above grade three.

Differentiation of subsequent memory effects between retrieval practice and elaborative study

Spaced retrieval practice consists of repetitions of the same retrieBjorkval event distributed through time. This learning strategy combines two “desirable difficulties”: retrieval practice and spacing effects. We carried out meta-analyses on 29 studies investigating the benefit of spacing out retrieval practice episodes on final retention. The total dataset was divided into two subsets to investigate two main questions: (1) Does spaced retrieval practice induce better memory retention than massed retrieval practice? (subset 1); (2) Is the expanding spacing schedule superior to the uniform spacing schedule when learning with retrieval practice? (subset 2). Using meta-regression with robust variance estimation, 39 effect sizes were aggregated in subset 1 and 54 in subset 2. Results from subset 1 indicated a strong benefit of spaced retrieval practice in comparison with massed retrieval practice (g = 0.74). Results from subset 2 indicated no significant difference between expanding and uniform spacing schedules of retrieval practice (g = 0.034). Moderator analyses on this subset showed that the number of exposures of an item during retrieval practice explains inconsistencies between studies: the more learners are tested, the more beneficial the expanding schedule is compared with the uniform one. Overall, these results support the advantage of spacing out the retrieval practice episodes on the same content, but do not support the widely held belief that inter-retrieval intervals should be progressively increased until a retention test.

Practicing more retrieval routes leads to greater memory retention

Active retrieval can alter the strength and content of a memory, yielding either enhanced or distorted subsequent recall. However, how consolidation influences these retrieval-induced seemingly contradictory outcomes remains unknown. Here we show that rapid neural reorganization over an eight-run retrieval practice predicted subsequent recall. Retrieval practice boosted memory retention following a 24-hour (long-term) but not 30-minute delay, and increased false memory at both delays. Long-term retention gains were predicted by multi-voxel representation distinctiveness in the posterior parietal cortex (PPC) that increased progressively over retrieval practice. False memory was predicted by unstable representation distinctiveness in the medial temporal lobe (MTL). Retrieval practice enhanced the efficiency of memory-related brain networks, through building up PPC and MTL connections with the ventrolateral and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex that predicted long-term retention gains and false memory, respectively. Our findings indicate that retrieval-induced rapid neural reorganization together with consecutive consolidation fosters long-term retention and false memories via distinct pathways.

Would you like to learn more? Retrieval practice plus feedback can increase motivation to keep on studying

Objective: Accumulating evidence suggests that retrieval practice (testing during learning) enhances memory in clinical populations. However, no study to date has examined the efficacy of retrieval practice in stroke survivors, despite the negative impact of poststroke memory difficulties. We investigated whether retrieval practice enhances memory for names in stroke survivors and healthy controls. Method: Using a within- and between-subjects design, 20 stroke survivors and 20 healthy controls completed an experimental paradigm that required them to learn 18 name-face pairs divided across 3 learning conditions (spaced restudy, retrieval practice, massed study). A mixed analysis of variance compared participants' name recall across conditions after 30 min and 7 days. Results: There was a main effect of learning condition (p < .001, ηp² = .67) and a significant Time × Condition interaction (p < .001, ηp² = .25). Post hoc comparisons revealed that retrieval practice was the superior learning condition in both groups after 30 min. After 7 days, there was no significant difference between the retrieval practice and spaced restudy conditions in stroke survivors (p = .08, d = 0.41), although retrieval practice remained superior to massed study (p = .001, d = 0.88). Conclusions: Retrieval practice is a promising memory technique that significantly enhanced stroke survivors' memory for names. Given similar performance in the retrieval practice and spaced restudy conditions after 7 days, stroke survivors may benefit from multiple presentations of information during learning, rather than 1 prolonged exposure. Future studies should investigate whether additional retrieval opportunities might prolong the beneficial effect of testing during learning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

College students are at the critical moment of physical development and mental change. However, there are various problems caused by their mental disorder. So it is necessary to adopt corresponding effective ways to solve them. Among the ways, taking part in sport activities plays a positive role in promoting college students’ mental health. Sport activities are usually characterized by being collective, open, intense, contending and competitive, and they are carried out with strong emotional experience and obvious willpower. Participating in sport activities can train students to be brave, observe social rules, be positive and be cooperative. Meanwhile, it can promote them to communicate harmoniously, learn to endure setback, have correct self-recognition and be modest and prudent. By using literature review, logical analysis, induction and deduction, the article analyzes college students’ common mental problems, explores college PE’s role in promoting college students’ mental health, as well as elaborates that college sport activities can regulate students’ mental contradiction and promote their mental health.

Students learn more effectively through repeated retrieval of study materials relative to repeated exposure to the materials, a phenomenon known as the testing effect or retrieval practice. This pattern has been demonstrated repeatedly with verbal materials, and more recently with visuospatial materials. The extent to which retrieval practice produces spatial memories that successfully transfer to more diverse task demands remains unknown. Transferring spatial memory to novel task demands can involve challenging orientation and perspective transformations, possibly limiting the benefits of retrieval practice for application to realistic spatial tasks. In 4 experiments, participants learned a map of a large-scale urban environment, engaging in either study practice (repeated exposure) or retrieval practice (exposure and testing). Across experiments we varied the retrieval demands of the final memory test, increasing the breadth of transfer from study to test (from near to far transfer). Final memory tests included reconstructing a map from memory (Experiment 1), judgments of relative direction from an allocentric perspective (Experiment 2), judgments of relative direction from an egocentric perspective (Experiment 3), and navigating between target landmarks within the learned environment (Experiment 4). Results demonstrated that retrieval practice enhances near to medium transfer of memory for the map itself, including accessing spatial memory from varied orientations. However, it does not assist in medium to far transfer of spatial knowledge to pointing or navigation tasks performed from an alternate perspective. Results are considered in the context of domain-specific theories of spatial memory and navigation, and domain-general theories of learning strategies and transfer. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

What is known on the subject? Despite the increase of studies into the predictors of psychological distress, few have attempted to address the mediation of stress in the relationship between early trauma and psychological distress. What does this paper add to existing knowledge? In this study, college students with trauma exposure before the age of 18 years reported high levels of college life stress and psychological distress. In addition, of the subcategories of early trauma, emotional abuse was most highly correlated with current stress and psychological distress. This paper confirmed the partial mediating effect of stress between early trauma and psychological distress among Korean college students. In other words, this study found a direct effect of early trauma on current psychological distress and an indirect effect of early trauma on psychological distress mediated through life stress. What are the implications for practice? Early trauma and stress should be considered when developing interventions for college students' mental health, although individuals with trauma exposure have difficulties disclosing their traumatic event. Therefore, we suggest that stress management may be easier to apply and more effective in promoting college students' mental health than trauma-focused interventions. Research has shown that early trauma and stress may affect current psychological distress. However, few studies have attempted to address the mediation of stress between early trauma and psychological distress. This cross-sectional observational study aimed to examine the mediating effects of stress on the association between early trauma and psychological distress in Korean college students. Participants included 216 college students (51.4% male) who completed self-report questionnaires assessing early trauma, college life stress, and psychological distress. Early trauma, stress, and psychological distress were significantly correlated. Of the subcategories of early trauma, emotional abuse was most highly correlated with stress and psychological distress. The bootstrapping results indicate that stress is a partial mediator between early trauma and psychological distress after controlling for covariates including socioeconomic status, habitation status, and gender. The results imply that both early trauma and stress should be considered when developing interventions for college students' mental health. However, individuals with trauma exposure tend to have difficulties disclosing their traumatic event. Therefore, we suggest that stress management may be more feasible and effective in promoting college students' mental health than trauma-focused interventions.

Retrieval Practice Improves Memory in Survivors of Severe Traumatic Brain Injury

The influence of circadian rhythms on memory has long been studied; however, the molecular prerequisites for their interaction remain elusive. The hippocampus, which is a region of the brain important for long-term memory formation and temporary maintenance, shows circadian rhythmicity in pathways central to the memory-consolidation process. As neuronal plasticity is the translation of numerous inputs, illuminating the direct molecular links between circadian rhythms and memory consolidation remains a daunting task. However, the elucidation of how clock genes contribute to synaptic plasticity could provide such a link. Furthermore, the idea that memory training could actually function as a zeitgeber for hippocampal neurons is worth consideration, based on our knowledge of the entrainment of the circadian clock system. The integration of many inputs in the hippocampus affects memory consolidation at both the cellular and the systems level, leaving the molecular connections between circadian rhythmicity and memory relatively obscure but ripe for investigation.

The complementary view of strategy combinations points to the fact that a combination of strategies that promote memory encoding and retrieval practice strategies can be effective in improving memory retention. This study examines the effectiveness of the combination of oral reading and retrieval practice strategies and the effect of the development of reading patterns on their effectiveness. This study designed a mixed experimental design of 3 (grades: Grade three, Grade five, college students) × 2 (reading mode: oral reading and silent reading) × 2 (learning strategies: re-learning and retrieval practice). Among them, reading mode is the within-subject variable, and learning strategy and grade are the between-subjects variables. The dependent variable is the ratio of specific words recalled in the final test. The results show that the oral and retrieval practice is a significant and effective combination of memory strategies for primary school students who are mainly oral reading or in the transition from oral reading to silent reading. It is significantly better than the three strategy combinations of oral reading combined with re-leaning, silent reading combined with re-learning, and silent reading combined with retrieval practice. For adult students who dominated silent reading, silent reading combined with retrieval practice is the best memory strategy.