TERRORIST ATTACKS OBJECTIVES, CHARACTERISTICS AND METHODS OF EXECUTION

International law is under pressure on how to deal with the alarming monumental increase on acts of violent extremism, terror acts and terrorist attacks on the global space. Acts of violent extremism, terror acts and Terrorist attacks appear to be taking diverse forms and shape in a manner that makes identification of such acts problematic and cumbersome. What is more worrisome is the general permutation that what was hitherto considered acts of violent extremism, terror acts and terrorist attacks can no longer be classified as acts of violent extremism, terror acts and terrorist attacks because of the dynamic nature of law and society. Equally alarming is the technologically driven sophistication and complexity of the present-day acts of violent extremism, terror acts and terrorist attacks. This paper seeks to examine and demonstrate the contemporary developmental challenges associated with the fluid concept of violent extremism, terror acts and terrorist attacks in international law. It unveils the contemporary jurisprudential relevance in the criminalization of acts of violent extremism, terror acts and terrorist attacks under international law. This work further attempts to analyze the contemporary evolution of the concept of acts of violent extremism, terror acts and terrorist attacks in international law and the general discourse on the call for criminalization of all acts of violent extremism, terror acts and terrorist attacks. It equally seeks to analyze the modern jurisprudence of acts of violent extremism, terror acts and terrorist attacks as conventional crimes and terrorism as international infractions. One enthralling challenge is the intriguing complex nature, interpretation, definition and systemic concerns of the concepts of acts of violent extremism, terror acts and terrorist attacks under universal jurisprudence in international law. What is however generally accepted is the fact that acts of violent extremism, terror acts and terrorist attacks in all their ramifications are counter-productive to the peace, stability and security of the international community.

This chapter discusses the approach that is employed in the study and characterization of William Wordsworth's poetry. It explains why this approach to Wordsworth avoids issues related to history and politics due to an interest in other aspects of the poet's work. What it does discuss, however, is Wordsworth's politics in the sense that despite the topic's domination in the classroom and the academic press, there is an intrinsic breach of scale in politicizing his works. In other words, though Wordsworth's poetry is politically motivated, it also has an ontological motive that has far greater reach and is more pressing than its political motive. Thus this chapter provides the methodology or the approach through which that motive will be extracted from Wordsworth's text.

A LTHOUGH hostage seizures are a small percentage of terrorist incidents, they represent some of the most spectacular and influential events.2 The takeover of the American embassy in Tehran on November 14, 1979, the seizure of eleven dPEC oil ministers on December 21, 1975, and the capture and killing of nine Israeli athletes on September 5, 1972, are incidents not easily forgotten. From 1968 through 1982, of the approximately 8,000 reported terrorist events, 540 (7 percent) were transna-

The article deals with issues related to the media as a relay of information provided by the armed forces, the state and terrorist organizations, in armed conflicts and terrorist acts. It contains two main subchapters, namely: the first on the role of the media in armed conflicts and terrorist acts, and the second describing the use of media by terrorists. There is no doubt that almost every ongoing armed conflict or terrorist attack can count on a broad media coverage. It is an event that neither news agencies, broadcasters of television news services, nor print media publishers can miss. The text mentions the basic models of behavior of state authorities in this matter of informing the public about events such as warfare or terrorist attack. Forms of providing information from conflict regions or terrorist activities by contemporary journalism have also been described. There was also information about the role of the Internet in the process of reporting the course of the war. An important part of the article is to describe the media strategy in relation to this type of event. The summary concludes on the role of mass media in contemporary armed conflict and the terrorist attack.

Global Implications of State Sponsored Terrorism

Scholars, politicians, and pundits increasingly suggest lone wolf terrorists are substantial threats, but we know little about how dangerous these actors are—especially relative to other terrorist actors. How deadly are lone actor terrorists? A growing body of empirical research focuses on terrorist organizations, but similar work on lone actors is sparse. Furthermore, attempts to explicitly compare these or other types of terrorist actors are almost non-existent. This article considers theoretical arguments for why lone wolves ought to be especially lethal. However, it presents an argument for why terrorist groups should generally be more lethal. This argument is conditional upon the environment in which actors operate. Lone wolves should only be more deadly in states with especially strong counterterrorism capacity. The article uses data on terrorist attacks in fifteen developed countries, 1970–2010, to compare the lethality of terrorist acts. Around the world, attacks by organizations tend to be far more lethal than attacks by other actors. In the United States, however, lone wolves are generally the more lethal terrorist actors. This is argued to be because the robust counterterrorism capacity makes organized terrorism more difficult to accomplish.

With the turn of the century, Kenya’s capital, Nairobi, has had its share of terrorist activity. Due to their nature, global media houses have centred on these occurrences as they have formed the focal point during their immediacy. This has led to the rise of media; in all its variety, as a reliable ate truthful source of information: on the other hand, terrorists have used the media as a veritable and strong propaganda tool. This is in line with the main aim and intent of terrorism; the spread of fear and it also feeds to the belief by various terrorist groups that media is one of their biggest investments. This study sought to examine media’s role in televised media coverage and it’s influence on terrorist attacks in Nairobi County, Kenya. The sample size for the study was derived from 110 officers from the Anti-Terror Police Unit, a section of the Directorate if Criminal Investigations and informants numbering to 14 from television editors, freelance reporters, and across civil society. The data was collected through questionnaires and interview guides for the officers from ATPU and respondents from the media and civil society respectively. It was further analysed using SPSS and presented through the use of frequency distribution tables and bar graphs; other modes include inferential statistics of linear regression and Chi square. The study revealed that there was a significant effect on the security situation in Nairobi due to televised media coverage of terrorist attacks. The study revealed a significant relationship between media coverage of terrorist incidents and increased insecurity in Nairobi. (χ2 = 9.499a, p = 0.023). The recommendations include the development of proportionality in the reporting on terrorist attacks. This is because an overemphasis on terrorist threats has an inadvertent advancement of terrorism and terrorist activities. There is therefore a need for care by journalists lest they be used as vehicles of propaganda by terrorists. This is due to the power that is inherent in misinformation in denying the general public independent reporting and the resultant understanding that comes with it. It is recommended that there be a limit as to the amount and type of information released to the media and eventually to the public in the event of a terrorist attack; this helps in averting the spread of terrorist propaganda and the misinformation of the public.

Can the Supreme Court be free of politics? Do we want it to be? Normative constitutional theory has long concerned itself with the legitimate scope and limits of judicial review. Too often, theorists seek to resolve that issue by eliminating politics from constitutional decisionmaking. In contrast, Terri Peretti argues for an openly political role for the Supreme Court. Peretti asserts that politically motivated constitutional decisionmaking is not only inevitable, it is legitimate and desirable as well. When Supreme Court justices decide in accordance with their ideological values, or consider the likely political reaction to the Court's decisions, a number of benefits result. The Court's performance of political representation and consensus-building functions is enhanced, and the effectiveness of political checks on the Court is increased. Thus, political motive in constitutional decision making does not lead to judicial tyranny, as many claim, but goes far to prevent it. Using pluralist theory, Peretti further argues that a political Court possesses instrumental value in American democracy. As one of many diverse and redundant political institutions, the Court enhances both system stability and the quality of policymaking, particularly regarding the breadth of interests represented.

(1991). Economic Analysis Can Help Fight International Terrorism. Challenge: Vol. 34, No. 1, pp. 10-17.

Terrorism has become a world problem now, due to the series of terrorist attacks worldwide. However, the challenge of terrorism is not new. From 1793 to 1794, the French revolutionary government used harsh and violent measures against citizens, accusing them as enemies of revolution. Terrorism can be traced back to ancient times Since September 11, 2001, during the terrorist attacks in America, the world has been shocked by these events. The terrorist groups such as Al-Qaida and the Islamic State in Syria and the Levant (ISIL, or Da’esh), are repeatedly mentioned because of their terrorist attacks. This paper analyzes the causes of terrorism and the best way to deal with it. The paper discusses the misconception that Islam in itself is the cause of terrorism, and the paper criticizes the idea that Islam is the root of terrorism, by providing evidence from Islamic sources and Islamic scholars who confirm that Islam does not support terrorism. Still, some Muslims, due to ignorance, use religious belief to justify their terrorist act, and this can occur in any religion, not only Islam. The paper uses the secondary analysis approach by examining the collected data and books on terrorism and analyse them using the Quran and Prophetic narration and the Jurisprudence of Islam.

The threat of terrorist attack posed to the Republic of Poland is of a potential character and possible targets for such attacks include also objects located in the area of the Baltic Sea. Terrorist activities may be carried out in order to destroy or render vessels such as passenger, cargo and the navy ships, hydraulic structures and port facilities inoperative, as well as to take control over them. A terrorist attack may also aim at causing an environmental disaster. Direct targets of terrorist attacks may be passengers or crew members, but attempts of cargo seizure may also be expected. Potential forms of terrorist attack possible to carry out on the sea include among other things: bomb attacks, hijacking, shooting incidents, mines, and underwater sabotage. Terrorist attacks may be undertaken by both separate terrorist groups and the ones that are linked with international terrorist organizations serving their ideological purposes. Activities performed by organized terrorist groups may mainly aim at money extortion. Perpetrators of terror attacks may also include special forces of foreign countries that conduct their activities in order to deteriorate the economy of the other country, disparage it or complicate its internal or international situation. To combat terrorist threats on the sea effectively it is necessary to undertake complementary and coordinated activities, and the tasks of preventing such threats and counteracting the effects of possible terror attacks are to be carried out by relevant forces and entities that act under particular government departments, as well as government administration bodies and special forces.

Chapter One Endangered Children Life in War-Affected Areas On the Ground Past Checkpoints, Into Town Across the Globe Knowledge, Power, Action Social Science of Youthful Terrorists Chapter Two 2007 Madrid: I Declare this Conference Open. Interdisciplinary Analyses of Aggression and Terrorism Update on the Social Science of Aggression and Terrorism The Questions What is Terrorism? Defining Terrorism Defining a Terrorist Prototypes of Terrorists Social Scientists Describing Child Terrorists In the Meantime: Proposal for a Consensus Model Terrorism and Altruism Distinguishing Legitimate Militaries from Terrorist Groups What About Legitimate Grievances? Could Terrorist Acts Ever be Performed by Normal People? What about Demographics and Motivation? What about the Demographics of Child Terrorists? Comparing Child Terrorists with Child Soldiers What about Distribution of Wealth and Resources? A Question that did not come up: Biological Determinism for Aggression Chapter Three Twenty-First Century Terrorism and the Development of Youthful Terrorists Child Soldier, Child Terrorist Cognitive Development and Youth in War-Affected Areas Group-Defined Identity Deciding to Engage in a Terrorist Act: The Youthful Brain The Ecology of Development The Propensity to Engage in Terrorist Acts The Production-Line Analogy Preventing the Recruitment of Youth as Martyrs Chapter Four When the Last Tamil Has Died When will the war end? Never. What will it be like when the war ends? The Irony of a Common Theme Talking About It Freedom to Travel The Privilege of an Education How old should someone be before joining a fighting force? Growing up in War-affected Areas Ethnic Conflict: An Informed Account of a Minority Childs Experience From the Childs Point of View: Very Young Children in War-Affected Areas Middle Childhood Older Children: Thirteen and Beyond Truth and Lies Things You Know Things You Dont Know It all Looks Clear Now Credible? Chapter Five Victims of 21st Century War: Are We all in This Together? Costs of War: Young Men and Women Military Service vs. Rebel Militia Parents of Youthful Terrorists Who have Died in Attacks Chain of Events Creating Martyrs: What Americans Need to Know Common American Theories About Youthful Terrorists Radical Differences in Experience Underscoring the Need for Better Knowledge of the World Ecological Psychology A Very Good Cause A Very Good Cause: What Do They Know and How do They Know It? Trust and Distrust in the US How Distrust of News Contributes to Recruitment of Children in War-Affected Areas Stop Providing Weapons. Resources Dont Discount Our Generation Shared Future: Human Rights, Terrorism, and Youth Around the World Nuclear Taboo Very Brief Historical Overview Contemporary Nuclear Threat Nuclear Threat Some Evidence and Scenarios for Possible Nuclear Attack on the United States Could A Terrorist Organization Obtain a Nuclear Weapon? Could a Nuclear Weapon be Transported into the US? Chapter Six The Fisherman On a Global Scale: The Fishermans Potential Network Good guys and bad guys: The bad guys keep on coming. Managing the Difficult View Hearts and Minds? Winning Hearts and Minds: A Modest Proposal American Compassion and Mercy Knowing Hearts and Minds Why try to understand those who would perpetrate violence on innocent people? Northern Ireland Challenging misperceptions: Everyday heroism About the Authors Series Afterword

Terrorist attacks in Norway, Germany, Belgium, Holland, France and Turkey showed that Europe faces new security challenges. Based on their purpose, terrorist organisations vary widely: They range from large state-like structures to small, decentralised and self-directed networks. How these networks develop and maintain depends to a large degree on their financial sources and funding. The authors look at those aspects of terrorism. They analyse different methods of funding ? how terrorist organisations, terrorist cells and individuals raise, move and spend money to support or carry out terrorist activities. The study also takes international responses into account to combat the funding of terrorism.

Despite considerable speculation among terrorism researchers regarding the conditions leading to organizational desistance from terrorism, quantitative analysis of terrorism frequently focuses on terrorist attacks as the unit of analysis, resulting in a near complete absence of analyses of terrorist organizations themselves. Moreover, research on organizations that engage in terrorism has generally been limited to case studies of individual organizations. Toward a more general understanding of what conditions predict organizational desistance from terrorism, this study uses newly available data from the Global Terrorism Database to analyze the terrorist activity of 557 organizations that were active for at least 365 days between 1970 and 2008. Much like research on conventional crime, prior research on terrorism has focused almost exclusively on the onset of criminal behavior and has neglected determinants of declining activity. Here I use group-based trajectory models to investigate patterns of decline in organization-level terrorist activity. In particular I examine how patterns of onset relate to patterns of decline among these organizations. I first estimate the trajectory models for the organizations’ frequency of attacks, and then calculate the annual ratio of attacks to attacks-at-peak for each organization in order to isolate patterns of decline, independent of the magnitude of activity. I then repeat the trajectory analysis to determine if the relative shape of the organizational trajectory has significance beyond the overall frequency of attacks. I find that the speed and magnitude of an organization’s emergence are correlated with its longevity such that those organizations characterized by rapid onset are two to three times more likely than those characterized by moderate onset to reach moderate or high levels of attacks per year. Likewise, as the rate and overall volume of attacks at onset increase, so does the likelihood that the group will follow a persistent pattern of decline. I conclude with a discussion of the implications of patterns of decline among terrorist organizations for research and policy.

Terrorism is one of the biggest problems in today’s world and one that, to a greater or lesser extent, continues to evolve. This evolution is true of many aspects, including terrorist tactics and strategy as well as types of terrorist threats. The global and destructive reach of terrorism is clearly reflected in different comparative studies. For example, data gathered by the National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (START) indicate that there were over 150,000 terrorist attacks around the world between 1970 and 2015. These attacks were carried out in over 100 countries, most of them, however, in Afghanistan, Iraq Nigeria, Pakistan, and Syria. In recent years, the force driving the escalation of terrorist activity was initially Al- -Qaeda, followed by the Islamic State. ISIS combines features commonly attributed to terrorist organizations, criminal groups, states, terrorist networks, and military formations. Contrary to the common view, the Islamic State is not a state as defined in international law and practice. Although it has territory, a population, and authorities, it does not have the capacity to pursue international relations and does not meet the criterion of external sovereignty. Only a state fulfilling all of these conditions can rightly be called a state. Thus, in the case of ISIS, we can only talk of certain elements of statehood and not of a state proper, as understood in international law and relations. In 2015, the number of terrorist attacks around the globe dropped by 13% (from 13,463 in 2014 to 11,774 in 2015). A particularly sharp drop occurred in Pakistan (45%), Iraq (28%), and Nigeria (11%), whereas other countries witnessed a surge in the number of attacks. This was the case of Turkey (escalation by 353%), Bangladesh (270%), Egypt (69%) and Syria. Syria presents a particularly complex and alarming picture, with the number of terrorist attacks up by 65%, the number of people killed up by 62%, the number of those injured up by 91%, and the number of those kidnapped and held hostage up by 67%. In 2015, the number of people who lost their lives as a result of terrorism dropped by 14% (from 32,727 in 2014 to 28,328 in 2015). There was a rise in the number of people injured (2%) and kidnapped and held hostage by terrorists (29%). The latter phenomenon is particularly alarming since it indicates renewed terrorist interest in this form of activity. The purpose of the article is to answer the following research questions: What is terrorism? How can it be defined? What are its primary causes and features? What characterizes contemporary terrorist threats? What is the scale of global terrorism today? What led to the emergence and subsequent rapid rise of the Islamic State? How can terrorism be prevented and combated effectively? The author uses his own definition of terrorism. He defines terrorism as a variously motivated and implemented form of political and/or social violence (or threatening such violence) breaching the binding legal order, perpetrated by individuals or groups through different means and methods, leading to physical, psychological, or material damage. This form of violence has a direct target or targets (for example individuals representing a given state) or an indirect target through which the perpetrator wants to achieve his final purpose. This definition draws attention to a couple of important and universal features of terrorism. Firstly, it demonstrates the diversity of its causes (motives), spanning a wide range of factors that drive and escalate the phenomenon. Secondly, it highlights the fact that terrorist acts violate the law, resulting in a broad range of consequences. Thirdly, it stresses that terrorism (as people often mistakenly assume) encompasses not just the actions of groups, but also those of individuals. Fourthly, it points to the multiplicity and diversity of means and methods employed by terrorists. Religious, political, or ethnic reasons are not the sole driving forces behind terrorism, which springs from a combination of many different factors, including cultural, historical, psychological and socio-economic determinants – the latter often underestimated or overlooked. There is frequently a direct or indirect link between terrorism and poverty or other serious socio-economic problems observed in a given territory. This is reflected, inter alia, in the data published in the Global Terrorism Index 2015. This report indicates that in recent years, countries that have seen the steepest increase in the number of deaths due to terrorist attacks are largely poor ones, including Iraq, Nigeria, Afghanistan, Syria, and Somalia. Of course this does not mean that poverty or big social inequalities always lead to terrorism. They can, however, stoke up different extremist attitudes, including ones with ties to terrorism. This state of affairs is known as “fueling terror.” The paper highlights selected aspects of contemporary terrorism. Other important issues include the problem of terrorist financing, the consequences of terrorism, identifying real and potential perpetrators, the evolution of terrorist strategy and tactics as employed by “lone wolves,” suicide bombers, and women and children used to carry out attacks, links between migration and terrorism, etc. A comprehensive discussion of these topics requires a separate and much broader study. Such a study should be prepared by an interdisciplinary team of specialists bringing together not just security, but also legal, psychology, sociology or economic experts. Such a team should include both theorists and practitioners with wide-ranging experience in analyzing, eliminating, and forecasting terrorist threats.