TEMPORAL VARIABILITY AND PREDICTABILITY OF ANNUAL RAINFALL IN CENTRAL PUNJAB, PAKISTAN

Climate change is expected to affect water supply if extreme climatic events and unpredictable rainfall patterns become more prevalent. Bulk infrastructure tends to determine urban communities' vulnerability to water supply and this infrastructure tends to be managed by the government. This suggests that water supply adaptation will require government capacity and commitment—often lacking in the developing country context. This article focuses on the processes impeding and facilitating adaptation to climate change within the urban water sector in the City of Cape Town, South Africa. The case study explores water management at the city scale, highlighting how actors currently respond to water stress and the challenges they face in integrating climate change information into water management. The case study results suggest that the best ways to facilitate adaptation are to focus on areas where development needs and responses to climate change impacts are connected, and focus support on adaptation processes rather than outcomes. This approach is likely to ensure that climate change responses are not seen as competing with non-climate development priorities, but as part of the solution to them. This is likely to create incentives for the global South to respond to climate change.

A complicated web of issues threatens the productivity and long-term viability of tropical coconut agriculture. The health and vitality of coconut palms are seriously threatened by illnesses including Rhincosporium Palm Leaf Spot, Lethal Yellowing Disease, and infestations by coconut mites. The fragility of coconut crops is exacerbated by the increasing effects of climate change, which show up as rising temperatures and unpredictable rainfall patterns. In coastal areas, where coconut farming is common, soil erosion and saline intrusion provide additional challenges that reduce the resilience of coconut trees. The use of monoculture techniques, which are common in coconut farming, depletes the nutrients in the soil and increases vulnerability to pests and illnesses. Inadequate management of water and nutrients in agricultural operations makes these problems worse and may even hinder the growth of coconuts. Coconut cultivation is made less profitable by urbanisation and market complexities including price swings and limited market access. Adoption of sustainable practices is hampered by limited access to contemporary farming technologies, financial constraints, and unstable land tenure, which further impedes long-term investments. To strengthen the resilience and sustainability of tropical coconut cultivation in the face of various adversities, a comprehensive strategy that includes strong research initiatives, widespread technology dissemination, supportive policies, and community engagement is essential in navigating this complex landscape. Keywords: Tropical coconut cultivation, challenges, diseases, pests, climate change, soil erosion, salinity intrusion, monoculture, nutrient management, water management, urbanization, market fluctuations, technology access, financial constraints, land tenure, resilience, sustainability.

A comprehensive review of the impacts of climate change on agriculture in Thailand

Drought presents a major challenge to agriculture and rural livelihoods, particularly in countries like Indonesia, which feature diverse topography and unpredictable rainfall patterns. This study addresses the critical need for a sustainable approach to mitigate drought risks by employing a ‘sustainability trilogy’ approach that integrates economic, social, and environmental dimensions. The research objectives are to: (1) identify potential risks and impacts of drought, (2) evaluate water management programmes and technologies to combat drought, and (3) apply the three pillars of sustainable development through the sustainability trilogy as a framework for drought disaster mitigation. A case study methodology was employed, focusing on Lombok, Indonesia, where water management systems and agricultural practices were examined. Data collection involved field observations, interviews, and focus group discussions (FGDs) with local farmers, irrigation managers, and community leaders. A thematic analysis combined with expert judgement analysis was used to evaluate the effectiveness of water conservation techniques, land management, and climate adaptation policies. The findings indicate that short-term solutions, such as optimising reservoirs and water storage systems, significantly reduce immediate drought impacts. Medium-term strategies, including community-driven water conservation efforts and sustainable land management practices, enhance resilience to drought. Long-term policies, such as climate adaptation initiatives and artificial rain technologies, are vital for ensuring sustainable water resource management in the context of climate change.ContributionThis research provides valuable insights and a practical framework for policymakers, aimed at strengthening water resilience, agriculture, and community sustainability in drought-prone regions.

Water systems, such as lakes, rivers, and dams, are essential to a nation's socioeconomic growth, agricultural output, and ecological balance. Numerous industries, including hydropower, mining, fishing, agriculture, and recreation, are supported by these resources. However, issues like climate change, which includes extreme droughts, unpredictable rainfall patterns, and industrial pollution, as well as the nation's heavy reliance on water—90% of the world's supply—are posing an increasing threat to these water bodies, water reservoirs, and their sustainability. The degradation of these water bodies brought on by climate change has had a detrimental effect on agriculture and food security in particular. The greatest water quality prediction and management systems that can assist and advise stakeholders in implementing the required and effective strategies to conserve and maintain high-quality water bodies have been developed through the use and testing of numerous and varied approaches. An artificial intelligence (AI)-based predictive analysis framework for proactive water conservation and quality assurance is reviewed and examined in this study. The study incorporates data from multiple machine learning approaches to show that hybrid models, including CNN-LSTM-Attention networks, perform well in predicting water quality indicators like pH, dissolved oxygen, and electrical conductivity (EC). This paper's work demonstrates how the AI-based predictive analytic system was created as a means of developing a more complete, accurate, and effective system. Experimental data was used to validate the created framework, and the results illustrate a promising correlation between the actual and projected water conditions. This strategy lays the groundwork for more intelligent water management systems, especially in emerging nations where urbanization and climate change are putting strain on water infrastructure. The findings support the idea that hybrid AI systems could improve environmental governance, strengthen early warning systems, and improve resource allocation. Using tree-based models like Random Forest, recent AI-based water quality monitoring systems have effectively predicted short-term changes. However, multivariate relationships and nonlinear seasonal patterns make predicting over longer time periods difficult. In order to forecast pH, turbidity, and dissolved oxygen levels up to 30 days ahead of time, this study proposes a hybrid deep learning model that combines Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks with an attention mechanism. By using enhanced datasets from several freshwater bodies, the model outperforms conventional techniques in terms of accuracy. The model's ability to capture dynamic fluctuations and long-term dependencies in environmental data is validated by the results, which make a compelling case for incorporating deep learning into frameworks for global surface water monitoring. By advancing predictive capabilities, this research contributes directly to Sustainable Development Goal 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), supporting smarter governance and public health interventions across the globe.[1]

Sustainable water management in smallholder irrigation schemes: Understanding the impact of field water management on maize productivity on two irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe

The study aimed at examining farmers’ perceptions on the impacts of climate change on food crops and the farming practices that contribute to climate change (CC) in Bibiani – Ahwiaso – Bekwai municipality of Western North Region of Ghana. Qualitative and quantitative methods were used for this study. The population of the study consisted of the number of households in six communities (Hwenampori, Wenchi, Tanoso, Awaso-Asempanaye, Kunkumso, and Sefwi Bekwai), officials from MoFA, GMA, and heads of households who are food crop farmers from the study area. Simple random and purposive sampling techniques were used to select respondents for the study. 231 respondents were selected and contacted for information to aid them in the study. The main instruments for data collection were the administration of questionnaires to farmers, organization of focus group discussions with key informants, the use of structured interview guides on MoFA directorates and direct observation of some farms. The primary and secondary data were sourced mainly from household heads from the study communities who are in the production of maize, cassava, and plantain. Pearson Chi-Square and Cross-tabulation of the IBM SPSS Version 20 were also used in performing descriptive statistical analysis. The study revealed that the output of maize, cassava, and plantain have all proved to be negatively impacted by changes in rainfall and temperature patterns with a more significant impact observed from maize responses to temperature. The study also indicated that the impact of climate change may affect the crops at any stage of the production process right from the land preparation to the maturity stage of crops but the more profound effect is observed at fruit development and maturation stages. The study indicated that changes in temperature affect crop yield, especially during the fruit/seed development stage. The study revealed that most farmers (about 92.2%) have observed climate change in the study area and indicated events like unpredictable rainfall patterns, excessively high temperatures and strong winds. It is recommended that capacity building and awareness creation should be enhanced by GMA and MoFA through the media to ensure that communication about climate change and food security is meaningful. This means that education on diversification of farming methods has not been enough if there is any at all in the area. Awareness creation, therefore, allows people to make informed and responsible decisions toward sustainable farming practices which will lead to food security and also environmental sustainability.

Seasonality and climatic control of reproduction in wild-caught female Lesser Egyptian jerboa (Jaculus jaculus) from central Saudi Arabia

Adapting to climate extremes: Implications for insect populations and sustainable solutions

The effect of uncontrolled grazing and unpredictable rainfall pattern on future changes in soil properties and processes of savanna ecosystems is poorly understood. This study investigated how rainfall amount at a gradient of 50%, 100%, and 150% would influence soil bulk density (ρ), volumetric water content (θv), carbon (C), and nitrogen (N) contents in grazed (G) and ungrazed (U) areas. Rainfall was manipulated by 50% reduction (simulating drought—50%) and 50% increase (simulating abundance—150%) from the ambient (100%) in both G and U areas. Plots were named by combining the first letter of the area followed by rainfall amount, i.e., G150%. Samples for soil ρ, C, and N analysis were extracted using soil corer (8 cm diameter and 10 cm height). Real-time θv was measured using 5TE soil probes (20 cm depth). The EA2400CHNS/O and EA2410 analyzers were used to estimate soil C and N contents respectively. The interaction between grazing and rainfall manipulation increased θv and C but decreased N with no effect on ρ and C:N ratio. Rainfall reduction (50%) strongly affected most soil properties compared to an increase (150%). The highest (1.241 ± 0.10 g cm−3) and lowest (1.099 ± 0.05 g cm−3) ρ were in the G50% and U150% plots respectively. Soil θv decreased by 34.0% (grazed) and 25.8% (ungrazed) due to drought after rainfall cessation. Soil ρ increased with grazing due to trampling effect, therefore reducing infiltration of rainwater and soil moisture availability. Consequently, soil C content (11.45%) and C:N ratio (24.68%) decreased, whereas N increased (7.8%) in the grazed plots due to reduced C input and decomposition rate. The combined effect of grazing and rainfall variability will likely increase soil θv, thereby enhancing C and N input. Grazing during drought will induce water stress that will destabilize soil C and N contents therefore affecting other soil properties. Such changes are important in predicting the response of soil properties to extreme rainfall pattern and uncontrolled livestock grazing that currently characterize most savanna ecosystems.

Climate change poses a significant global development challenge, particularly for communities that rely on rain fed agriculture for their livelihoods, such as small-scale farmers. This study investigated small-scale farmers’ perceptions of climate change manifestations in the Kasambandola community of Katete District, in Eastern Province of Zambia. It employed a convergent mixed methods research design (QUAL+quant) where quantitative data played a complementary and supportive role to the qualitative data. The data was collected using semi-structured questionnaires, key informant interviews and focus group discussions. The sample comprised of 91 small scale farmers and 6 key informants. Qualitative data were analyzed thematically, while quantitative data was analyzed using Excel. The findings highlighted farmers’ perceptions of climate change as characterized by unpredictable rainfall patterns, shorter rainy seasons, and extreme weather events. These perceptions were corroborated by meteorological data, which showed significant variations in rainfall patterns over time. Respondents reported that these climatic changes severely impacted agricultural productivity, with maize yields—once ranging from 15–20 oxcarts per farmer—declining to just 2–8 oxcarts. In response, farmers implemented a mix of traditional practices, such as making heaped lines and expanding their farms through deforestation, alongside modern techniques like ripping, the Gamphani system, improved crop varieties, and crop diversification. While these adaptation strategies have shown promise, the study recommended the need for small-scale farmers to fully embrace sustainable agricultural practices to enhance resilience and mitigate the adverse effects of climate change.

Climate change and variability awareness and livelihood adaptive strategies among smallholder farmers in semi-arid northern Ghana

Climate is a complex system involving the atmosphere, land surface, snow and ice, oceans, and other water bodies. It is measured by variations in temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, precipitation, atmospheric particles, and other meteorological variables over a 30-year period. Climate change has gained momentum due to anthropogenic disturbances, which may negatively impact human health and the biosphere. The complex relationships between humans, microbes, and the biosphere are causing an increase in greenhouse gases (GHGs), causing global warming and other cascade effects. Climate change is a key environmental concern, posing challenges to ecosystems, food security, water resources, and economic stability. Historical climate records and projected patterns across global regions have confirmed this, with Ethiopia experiencing significant increases in annual mean temperature, hot days, and nights. Climate variability refers to the Spatio-temporal fluctuation of climatic conditions, focusing on the variability dimensions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has declared climate change a key environmental concern. Climate in Ethiopia is characterized by significant geographic variance in rainfall and temperature data. The country has three seasons: bega (dry season) from October to January, belg (short rain season) from February to May, and kiremt (long rainy season) from June to September. The country's climate is influenced by the seasonal migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone and its varied geography, affecting landforms, natural landscapes, and local people's living situations. Coffee is susceptible to drought, over-wetting, and wind damage because its production and quality are largely dependent on temperature and rainfall levels. In key coffee-growing regions around the world, the yield of coffee is at risk due to climate change and unpredictability. The production of coffee is expected to be severely impacted by high temperatures and unpredictable rainfall patterns in terms of yield, quality, pests, and illnesses.

Climate change has emerged as a significant challenge for agriculture globally, with profound implications for plantation crops, which are economically vital for many developing countries, including India. Changes in temperature, unpredictable rainfall patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events have raised concerns about the sustainability and productivity of plantation crops. Plantation crops are particularly sensitive to climatic variations due to their long gestation period, dependence on stable environmental conditions, and vulnerability to extreme weather events. The study examines the impact of climate change on tea production by selecting the major tea producing state Assam from northern part of India, Kerala and Tamil Nadu from southern part of India. The data for the study is collected from Indiastat and Economic Review (2021) for the period 2011 to 2020. High humidity and rainfall increased year round tea production in Assam, while Kerala’s tea production is affected by a more seasonal climate, with a distinct dry season leading to fluctuation in tea production. Tea production in Kerala and Tamil Nadu is increasingly vulnerable to climate variability, especially changes in temperature and rainfall. While moderate deviations in rainfall can be managed, sustained high temperatures above the optimal threshold critically limit shoot growth and yield. Therefore, adaptive measures, including shade management, irrigation scheduling, and selection of heat-resilient cultivars, are essential to mitigate the adverse effects of climatic stress on tea production.

Sap flow measurement is one of the most effective methods for quantifying plant water use.A better understanding of sap flow dynamics can aid in more efficient water and crop management, particularly under unpredictable rainfall patterns and water scarcity resulting from climate change. In addition to detecting infected plants, sap flow measurement helps select plant species that could better cope with hotter and drier conditions. There exist multiple methods to measure sap flow including heat balance, dyes and radiolabeled tracers. Heat sensor-based techniques are the most popular and commercially available to study plant hydraulics, even though most of them are invasive and associated with multiple kinds of errors. Heat-based methods are prone to errors due to misalignment of probes and wounding, despite all the advances in this technology. Among existing methods for measuring sap flow, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is an appropriate non-invasive approach. However, there are challenges associated with applications of NMR to measure sap flow in trees or field crops, such as producing homogeneous magnetic field, bulkiness and poor portable nature of the instruments, and operational complexity. Nonetheless, various advances have been recently made that allow the manufacture of portable NMR tools for measuring sap flow in plants. The basic concept of the portal NMR tool is based on an external magnetic field to measure the sap flow and hence advances in magnet types and magnet arrangements (e.g., C-type, U-type, and Halbach magnets) are critical components of NMR-based sap flow measuring tools. Developing a non-invasive, portable and inexpensive NMR tool that can be easily used under field conditions would significantly improve our ability to monitor vegetation responses to environmental change.